UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 
LIBRARY 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA 


SAMUEL  B.  GREEN 

Late  Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry, 

University  of  Minnesota. 


POPULAR 

FRUIT    GROWING 


PREPARED  ESPECIALLY  FOR  BEGINNERS  AND 

AS  A  TEXT  BOOK  FOR  SCHOOLS 

AND  COLLEGES. 


BY 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN 

PROFESSOR  OF  HORTICULTURE  AND  FORESTRY  IN  THE 
UNIVERSITY   OF   MINNESOTA. 


Author    of   "Vegetable    Gardening,"     "Amateur    Fruit    Growing, 

"Forestry  in  Minnesota,"  "Principles  of  American 

Forestry,"   "Farm   Wind-Breaks 

and  Shelter  Belts,"  Etc. 


FOURTH  EDITION,  Revised 


Copyright,  1909.  1910 

By 
SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 

Copyright.   1912 

By 
MRS,  ALICE  H.  GREEN. 


355 
^p 

PREFACE. 


The  development  of  the  teaching  of  Agriculture  has  made 
necessary,  and  has  been  largely  dependent  on,  the  making  of  text- 
books of  various  kinds  adapted  to  the  special  technical  work  for 
which  our  best  agricultural  schools  stand. 

When  these  agricultural  colleges  started  there  were  no  text- 
books adapted  to  their  special  lines  of  work,  and  the  demand 
necessitated  the  hasty  preparation  of  text-books  which  are  now 
being  replaced  by  those  that  are  more  complete  and  better  adapt- 
ed in  every  way  for  teaching  purposes. 

This  book  is  the  result  of  the  development  of  the  teaching 
of  Fruit  Growing  in  the  University  of  Minnesota  and  is,  in  a  way, 
a  compilation  of  lectures  on  Fruit  Growing:  eiven  to  the  students 
which  have  been  carefully  revised  and  considerably  extended. 
At  the  end  of  each  chapter  are  suggestive  questions  on  the  mat- 
ter presented. 

An  appendix  is  added  which  contains  formulas  for  fungi- 
cides, insecticides  and  grafting  waxes,  etc.;  lists  of  fruits  recom- 
mended for  special  typical  states  and  rules  for  naming  fruits. 
The  fruit  lists  are  from  the  professors  of  Horticulture  of  the 
various  Agricultural  Colleges  and  irom  secretaries  of  the  var 
rlous  Horticultural  Societies. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work  I  have  had  the  earnest  and 
Intelligent  assistance  of  Miss  Jeannette  Foster.  I  am  also  under 
obligations  to  my  assistant  in  Horticulture,  Mr.  A.  R.  Kohler, 
who  prepared  the  pages  on  Spraying  and  Spraying  machinery; 
to  Mr.  Elvin  Peterson,  student  of  the  College  of  Agriculture, 
who  has  made  many  of  the  drawings;  to  Prof.  Frederick  Wash- 
burn  for  cuts  which  he  has  loaned;  to  Prof.  E.  M.  Freeman  for 
many  suggestions  embodied  in  the  chapter  on  Plant  Diseases  and 
to  Mr.  A.  G.  Ruggles  for  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  chapter  on 
Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits.  I  am  also  under  obligations  to  those 
who  have  assisted  by  furnishing  data  for  the  fruit  list  and  in 
other  ways  aided  in  its  preparation. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN, 
St.  Anthony  Part,  Minn. 
March  1,  1910. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH  REVISED 
EDITION. 


The  large  use  of  Popular  Fruit  Growing  in  all  sections  of 
the  country  and  the  ever-changing  horticultural  conditions  have 
made  it  seem  best  to  revise  some  portions  of  the  book  before 
this,  the  Fourth  Edition,  goes  to  press.  Some  rearrangement  of 
the  subject  matter  has  been  made  in  order  to  conform  more 
closely  to  the  usual  plan  of  teaching  fruit  growing  in  American 
schools  and  colleges.  In  a  number  of  cases,  additional  material 
has  been  incorporated  where  conditions  have  changed  or  experi- 
ence has  shown  that  the  subject  was  not  discussed  at  sufficient 
length  in  former  editions. 

It  is  but  fitting  at  this  time  to  add  to  this  preface  a  short 
biography  of  the  teacher  and  scientist  who  originally  prepared 
the  work. 

Samuel  B.  Green  was  born  in  1859  at  Chelsea,  Mass.,  and 
died  July  11,  1910,  in  Itasca  Park,  Minnesota. 

In  1S79  he  graduated  from  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege at  a  time  when  agriculture  was  not  looked  on  very  favorably 
as  an  occupation  for  one  to  follow.  The  independence  of  purpose 
shown  in  the  selection  of  this  course  was  characteristic  of  Pro- 
fessor Green  throughout  his  life.  Whenever  possible,  he  did  the 
thing  that  appeared  to  him  to  be  right,  regardless  of  what  others 
thought  or  said. 

Ten  years  following  graduation  were  spent  in  practical 
nursery  and  farm  work,  gradually  gaining  the  experience  that 
would  be  of  value  to  him  in  later  life.  In  1888  he  came  to  Min- 
nesota as  Horticulturist  of  the  Experiment  Station  and  Professor 
of  Horticulture  in  the  University,  which  positions  "he  held  till 
his  death.  There  were  very  few  students  and  practically  no 
equipment  in  the  Department  of  Horticulture  at  the  time  of  Pro- 
fessor Green's  coming.  He  not  only  built  up  a  strong  Horticul- 
tural Division  and  very  greatly  advanced  the  horticultural  inter- 
ests of  the  state,  but  also  helped  to  establish  the  School  and  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  on  the  solid  foundation  on  which  they  exist 
in  Minnesota  today.  He  also  found  time  to  serve  the  state  in 


many  other  ways,  as  a  member  and  for  nearly  four  years  as 
President  of  the  State  Horticultural  Society,  member  of  the 
American  Pomological  Society,  Society  of  American  Foresters, 
and  other  similar  organizations.  During  the  later  years  of  his 
life  he  took  up  work  in  forestry  with  enthusiasm,  establishing  a 
strong  course  in  forestry  in  the  University  and  developing  a 
system  of  summer  training  for  foresters  in  Itasca  Park.  Early 
in  1910  he  was  made  Dean  of  the  College  of  Forestry. 

Professor  Green  was  the  author  of  many  bulletins  and  books 
along  horticultural  lines.  He  is  perhaps  best  known  as  author  of 
Vegetable  Gardening,  Amateur  Fruit  Growing,  Popular  Fruit 
Growing,  Forestry  in  Minnesota,  Principles  of  American  Forestry, 
and  Farm  Hedges  and  Windbreaks.  Thus  much  of  his  work  is 
preserved  in  permanent  form  and  will  live  after  him. 

LE  ROY  CADY. 

St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn., 
November  25,  1911. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Desirable  Factors  in  a  Fruit  Growing  Section. — Accessibility. 
Location.  Soils.  Topography.  Business  Aspect. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Principles  of  Plant  Growth. — Parts  of  Plant.  Parts  of  Flower. 
Pollination.  Hybrids.  Assimilation.  Transpiration.  Rest 
Period.  Classification  of  Plants.  Varieties. 

CHAPTER   III. 

The  Planting  and  Care  of  the  Orchard. — Selection  of  Varie- 
ties. Selection  of  Nursery  Stock.  Preparation  of  Land.  Laying 
Out  the  Orchard.  Setting  the  Trees  Cultivation.  Mulching. 
Cover  Crops.  Plant  Food.  Manuring.  Irrigation. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

Pruning. — Reasons  for  Pruning.  Effect  of  Pruning.  Pruning 
the  Young  Tree.  Starting  the  Head.  When  to  Prune.  How  to 
Make  the  Cuts.  Tools.  Training  the  Apple  Tree.  Renewing 
Old  Trees. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Orchard  Protection. — Injuries.  Frost  Protection.  Foretell- 
ing Frost.  Orchard  Heating. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits. — State  Inspection.  Chewing  In- 
sects. Sucking  Insects.  Root  Insects.  Beneficial  Insects.  Par- 
asites. Predaceous  Insects.  Apple  Insects  and  Remedies.  Pear 
Insects  and  Remedies.  Peach  Insects  and  Remedies.  Plum 
Insects  and  Remedies.  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Grape.  Insect 
Enemies  of  the  Bush  Fruits.  Strawberry  Insects  and  Remedies. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Diseases  Injurious  to  Fruits. — Apple  Diseases  and  Remedies. 
Pear  Diseases  and  Remedies.  Quince  Diseases  and  Remedies. 


Plum  Diseases  and  Remedies.  Peach  Diseases  and  Remedies. 
Cherry  Diseases  and  Remedies.  Grape  Diseases  and  Remedies. 
Strawberry  Diseases  and  Remedies.  Blackberry  Diseases  and 
Remedies.  Raspberry  Diseases  and  Remedies.  Gooseberry  Dis- 
eases and  Remedies.  Currant  Diseases  and  Remedies. 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

Spraying  and  Spraying  Apparatus.— Dust  Spraying.  Liquid 
Spraying.  Spraying  Apparatus. 

CHAPTER   IX. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing.— Picking.  Peddling.  Associa- 
tions. Packing.  Packages.  Package  Laws.  Barrels.  Packing 
Barrels.  Grades  of  Fruit.  Cold  Storage. 

CHAPTER  X. 

Propagation  of  Fruit  Plants.— Seed.  Stratification.  Offsets. 
Cuttings.  Budding.  Grafting.  Inarching. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Pome  Fruits. — Apples:  Classes  of,  Propagation,  Apple  Or- 
chards, Trees,  Seedlings,  Root  Grafting,  Planting,  Heeling  In, 
Cultivation,  Pruning,  Mulching,  Varieties.  Pear:  Origin,  Chi- 
nese Sand  Pear,  Standard  Pears,  Dwarf  Pears,  Propagation,  Soil 
and  Cultivation,  Planting,  Pruning,  Insects  and  Diseases,  Varie- 
ties, Packing.  Quince:  Propagation,  Planting,  Pruning,  Insects 
and  Diseases,  Varieties. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Stone  Fruits. — Plum:  Origin,  Propagation,  Stocks,  Soil, 
Planting,  Insects,  Varieties.  Cherry:  Origin,  Soil,  Planting, 
Time  of  Planting,  Age  of  Trees,  Cultivation,  Propagation,  Prun- 
ing, Picking  and  Marketing,  Insects  and  Diseases,  Varieties. 
Peach:  Origin,  Groups,  Propagation,  Planting,  Pruning,  Soil, 
Insects  and  Diseases,  Varieties.  Nectarine:  Origin.  Apricot: 
Origin,  Stocks,  Planting,  Pruning,  Insects  and  Diseases,  Varieties. 
CHAPTER  XIII. 

Grapes.— Origin,  Propagation,  Soil,  Planting,  Training  and 
Pruning,  Single  Post  Method,  High  Renewal  Method,  Kniffen 


Method,  4-Cane  KnifEen  Method,  2-Cane  High  Renewal  Method, 
Munson  Method,  Tying  Material,  Thinning,  Manuring,  Girdling. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Small  Fruits. — Strawberry:  Origin,  Location,  Soil,  Manuring, 
Planting  Methods,  Trimming,  Protection,  Renewing,  Burning, 
Picking  and  Marketing,  Varieties.  Currant:  Origin,  Soil  and 
Planting.  Pruning,  Protection,  Marketing,  Varieties.  Gooseberry: 
Origin,  Propagation,  Planting,  Pruning,  Marketing,  Insects,  Dis- 
eases. Raspberry:  Origin,  Classes,  Propagation,  Location,  Soil, 
Manuring,  Planting,  Cultivation,  Pruning,  Thinning,  Mulching, 
Protection,  Picking,  Marketing.  Blackberry  and  Dewberry: 
Groups,  Propagation,  Soils,  Planting,  Cultivation,  Pruning. 
Cranberry:  Location,  Soil,  Cultivation,  Drainage,  Planting,  Pick- 
ing. Juneberry:  Origin,  Propagation,  Cultivation,  Varieties. 
Sand  Cherry:  Distribution,  Propagation.  Bullberry  or  Buffalo 
Berry:  Distribution,  Propagation.  Mulberries:  Origin,  Propa- 
gation, Varieties.  Persimmon:  American  Persimmon,  Where 
Found,  Value  of  Fruit,  Method  of  Propagation,  Japanese  Per- 
simmon, Value  of  Fruit,  Propagation. 

CHAPTER    XV. 

Nuts. — Pecan:  Origin,  Soil,  Harvesting,  Marketing,  Insects, 
Grafting.  Chestnut:  Groups.  Chinquapins:  Propagation,  Plant- 
ing, Insects,  Diseases.  English  Walnut:  Propagation,  Harvest- 
ing, Marketing.  Japanese  Walnut.  Black  Walnut.  Almond: 
Soil,  Planting,  Propagation,  Marketing.  Hazel:  Origin,  Flower. 


APPENDIX. 


Appendix. — Spraying  Calendar.  Fungicides.  Insecticides. 
Grafting  Waxes.  Rules  for  Naming  Fruits.  Lists  of  Fruit  Rec- 
ommended for  Different  States.  Distances  Apart  for  Planting 
Fruits.  List  of  Horticultural  Books,  Periodicals  and  Bulletins. 


Popular  Fruit  Growing. 


2.3' 

CHAPTER  I. 

FACTORS  THAT  MAKE  UP  A  GOOD  FRUIT-GROWING  SEC- 
TION. 

Accessibility. — One  of  the  first  requisites  for  success  in  fruit 
growing  is  ready  communication  with  a  good  market.  This  may 
be  obtained  by  nearness  to  the  market  itself,  or  to  shipping  facili- 
ties where  transportation  to  the  market  centers  may  be  had  at 
reasonable  rates.  Water  communication  is  often  better  than 
rail,  especially  for  those  kinds  of  fruits  that  are  easily  injured 
by  rough  handling.  Two  or  more  competing  lines  of  communica- 
tion generally  tend  to  give  the  shipper  better  service  than  when 
one  road  has  the  monopoly.  Accessibility  is  of  the  first  impor- 
tance though  it  will  not  entirely  take  the  place  of  suitable  soil 
conditions;  however,  it  may  sometimes  make  it  profitable  to  use 
an  inferior  soil.  The  distance  which  fruit  can  be  hauled  with 
safety  or  profit  depends  largely  on  the  nature  of  the  product 
itself.  The  apple  grower  can  afford  to  be  farther  from  shipping 
facilities  than  the  peach  or  berry  grower,  as  his  fruit  is  less 
likely  to  be  damaged  in  hauling.  Growers  of  perishable  fruit* 
should  not  be  more  than  two  or  three  miles  from  a  shipping 
station. 

Good  wagon  roads  make  it  easy  to  get  to  market  quickly 
with  large  loads  of  produce  in  good  condition  and  form  a  very 
important  factor  in  the  development  of  any  fruit  section. 

If  the  location  is  so  far  from  the  consumer  that  the  produce 
must  be  shipped  by  a  common  carrier  it  is  important  that  enough 
fruit  be  raised  in  the  section  to  make  the  business  of  handling 
and  shipping  it  one  of  sufficient  importance  to  command  special 
attention  from  the  carrier  and  the  buyers,  so  as  to  make  it  a 
place  where  buyers  will  go  for  fruit.  In  starting  a  fruit  industry 


14  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

in  a  new  place  the  pioneers  often  labor  under  the  disadvantage 
of  not  having  enough  of  their  product  to  make  it  worth  while  to 
ship  it.  This  difficulty  can  be  overcome  in  new  sections  by 
starting  the  industry  on  a  large  scale  so  that  shipments  may 
be  made  in  carload  lots  and  by  co-operation  in  selling. 

Soils. — The  only  sure  way  of  determining  the  value  of  a  soil 
for  a  particular  fruit  is  by  field-trial,  because  so  many  factors 
enter  into  the  makeup  of  a  good -fruit  soil  that  it  is  easy  to  make 
mistakes,  and  yet  the  best  fruit  soils  have  many  evident  points 
in  common.  There  is  hardly  any  soil  but  which  under  favorable 
conditions  will  be  found  adapted  to  some  class  of  fruits.  For 
instance,  the  pear  prefers  a  rather  heavy  clay  soil;  the  peach 
and  cherry  quite  open  and  porous  soils.  The  strawberry  and 
blackberry  will  often  do  well  on  soil  too  sandy  for  other  fruits 
although  either  one  suffers  from  drought  on  a  heavy  soil.  The 
currant  and  gooseberry  prefer  an  open  clay  loam  but  will  adapt 
themselves  to  almost  any  location.  Then  there  are  locations,  such 
as  the  lands  adapted  to  the  Yellow  Newtown  or  Albemarle  Pippin 
apple  in  Virginia,  so  wondrously  fitted  to  special  fruits  that  it 
seems  impossible  to  raise  these  in  perfection  elsewhere. 

In  the  case  of  apples  and  many  other  tree  fruits  the  condition 
of  the  subsoil  is  generally  of  more  importance  than  the  surface 
soil,  although  the  condition  of  the  latter  must  not  be  overlooked. 
It  is  desirable  to  have  a  surface  soil  that  can  be  cultivated  easily 
and  will  not  bake  hard  after  rains.  Soil  that  is  extremely  rich 
in  plant  food  is  usually  undesirable  for  apples,  pears  and  peaches, 
especially  if  too  rich  in  nitrogen.  On  such  land  the  trees 
generally  grow  large  and  frequently  do  not  bear  until  quite 
mature.  The  unripened  buds  and  wood,  common  under  such  con- 
ditions, kill  back  in  winter  and  the  vigorous  growth  of  early  sum- 
mer seems  to  be  predisposed  to  fire  blight  or  similar  diseases. 

Loess  loam  is  the  name  given  to  an  open  clay  soil  which 
is  made  up  largely  of  clay  and  small  shells.  On  such  land  we 
generally  find  in  the  North  a  vigorous  growth  of  maple,  hack- 
berry  and  white  oak.  It  is  perhaps  the  best  kind  of  an  all 
around  fruit  soil  and  any  of  our  fruits  will  do  well  in  it. 

A  limestone  soil,  where  the  roots  can  reach  the  underlying 
lime  rock  or  soil  and  which  has  much  lime  in  its  makeup,  is 
especially  favorable  for  all  our  fruits  and  comes  next  to  or  may 


FACTORS  IN  FRUIT  GROWING  SECTIONS.  15 

equal  in  value  tlie  loess  loams.  In  parts  of  Florida  the  coral 
rock  and  the  old  shells  in  the  sand  help  to  make  good  fruit  soil. 

Heavy  clay  loam  may  be  better  adapted  to  agriculture  than 
to  fruit  raising,  but  if  such  soil  is  thoroughly  underdrained  and 
given  a  proper  rotation  of  cover  crops,  manure  and  general  cul- 
tivation, it  will  often  be  found  adapted  to  a  goodly  number  of 
fruits  and  especially  to  apple.s,  pears,  currants,  gooseberries  and 
the  sweet  cherries.  Such  a  soil  requires  a  very  careful  manage- 
ment in  order  to  get  the  best  results  from  it. 

Sandy  loam  underlaid  with  a  good,  open  clay  subsoil  is 
almost  ideal  for  any  of  the  small  fruits  and  grapes.  It  is  the 
easiest  kind  of  soil  to  handle  and  can  be  cultivated  shortly  after 
a  rain  without  becoming  lumpy  or  sticking  to  the  tools,  and  it 
easily  forms  a  dust  blanket.  Implements  scour  in  it  very  read- 
ily, which  is  no  small  convenience.  Altogether,  it  is  the  most 
pleasant  kind  of  soil  to  cultivate  and  well  adapted  to  a  long  list 
of  fruit  plants. 

Sandy  soil  dries  out  so  quickly  that  crops  on  it  suffer  from 
drought.  This  is  especially  true  where  the  soil  particles  are 
gives  quick  returns  from  manure  applied  to  it  but 
does  not  hold  soluble  manures.  In  general  it  is  not  adapted  to 
any  of  the  fruit  crops  unless  it  can  be  irrigated,  or  is  located 
where  the  water  table  is  within  the  reach  of  the  roots.  Under 
such  conditions  this  soil  may,  with  proper  management,  give 
good  results  with  strawberries,  blackcap  raspberries,  plums, 
sour  cherries  and  peaches,  and  with  many  of  the  subtropical 
fruits. 

Mucky  soil  is  not  well  adapted  to  fruits  of  any  kind  but  some 
kinds  of  strawberries  and  blackberries  will  occasionally  yield 
enormously  on  such  land  where  it  is  well  drained.  When  muck 
is  applied  to  sandy  or  clay  laud,  it  is  often  beneficial. 

Flat,  black  prairie  soil  is  seldom  sufficiently  adapted  to  any 
kind  of  fruit  to  become  the  foundation  of  an  important  fruit 
industry,  although  many  kinds  of  fruits  may  do  well  enough  on  it 
to  make  them  desirable  for  planting  in  the  home  garden. 

Clay  soil,  underlaid  with  gravel  at  a  depth  of  from  two  to 
four  feet,  may  be  used  for  sour  cherries,  peaches  and  plums, 
but  crops  on  it  are  liable  to  suffer  from  dought  and  such  lands 


16  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

should  generally  be  avoided  for  fruits.  It  dries  out  easily  and 
yet  the  surface  soil,  being  of  clay,  becomes  lumpy  unless  care- 
fully handled.  It  has  most  of  the  disadvantages  of  both  a  stiff 
clay  and  sandy  soil. 

Topography. — The  topography  of  a  country  is  the  "lay  of  the 
land ; "  i.  e.,  whether  hilly,  rolling  or  flat.  A  rolling  country  gives 
good  water  drainage  and  our  cultivated  fruits,  with  the  exception 
.of  the  cranberry,  are  intolerant  of  surplus  water  in  the  soil.  A 
rolling  country  also  gives  many  high  slopes  where  there  is  com- 
parative immunity  from  unseasonable  frosts.  Its  various  slopes 
are  adapted  to  a  variety  of  crops.  For  these  reasons  good  fruit 
sections  are  generally  located  where  the  land  is  hilly  but  land 
that  is  quite  flat  may  sometimes  prove  valuable  for  fruit  when 
near  large  water  areas  so  that  there  is  secured  comparative 
immunity  from  frosts  and  when  sufficiently  elevated  to  secure 
good  drainage.  As  a  rule,  however,  flat  land  is  not  well  adapted 
to  fruit  growing. 

The  direction  of  the  slope  is  an  important  matter,  but  one 
which  is  so  influenced  by  local  conditions  and  by  tne  class  oi 
fruits  which  is  to  be  grown  that  no  definite  rule  can  be  given 
In  the  Northern  states,  a  northeast  slope  is  generally  regarded  as 
best  for  the  tree  fruits,  as  it  warms  up  slowly  in  the  spring  and 
the  trees  are  less  likely  to  start  early  and  suffer  injury  from  late 
spring  frosts  and  the  hot,  dry  winds  of  summer.  Locations  near 
large  bodies  of  water,  especially  those  so  situated  that  the  pre- 
vailing winter  winds  blow  across  this  water  and  are  tempered  by 
it,  are  particularly  favorable  for  fruit  -growing,  as  the  danger 
from  frost  injury  is  greatly  reduced.  The  peach  belt  along  the 
eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  which  is  as  far  north  as  south- 
ern Minnesota,  is  a  familiar  example  of  the  tempering  effect  of 
water.  It  is  possible  to  grow  fruit  in  that  locality,  owing  to  the 
freedom  from  frosts,  which  could  not  be  produced  some  distance 
farther  south,  in  Indiana  and  Illinois,  in  districts  where  there  is 
no  protection  from  cold  northwest  winds. 

^ 

BUSINESS    ASPECT. 

Fruit^  Growing  as  a  Business. — Success  in  any  business  is 
largely  a  personal  matter  and  success  in  fruit  growing  likewise 


FACTORS  IN  FRUIT  GROWING  SECTIONS.  17 

depends  much  on  the  individual  and  his  adaptability.  The 
demand  for  fruit  is  on  the  increase  and  the  consumption  of  fresh 
fruits  per  capita  is  now  greater  than  a  few  years  ago.  With  the 
introduction  of  improved  methods  of  storing  and  shipping,  fresh 
fruit  is  destined  to  play  a  more  important  part  in  the  diet  of 
every  American.  Comparatively  a  few  years  ago  fresh  fruit  was 
regarded  as  a  luxury  but  now  it  is  looked  upon  as  a  staple  article 
of  diet  with  special  hygienic  values. 

Overproduction  of  Fruit. — There  is  occasionally  an  overpro- 
duction of  fruit  in  some  districts,  but  it  is  rare  that  there  is  an 
overproduction  of  good  fruit.  Our  chief  trouble  is  that  our 
methods  of  distribution  are  faulty  and  our  people  do  not  get  the 
fruit  they  want.  Fruits  that  can  be  readily  used  for  canning  or 
drying  purposes  are  most  stable  in  price  because,  when  low  in 
price,  it  is  easy  to  dispose  of  the  surplus.  Fruits  which  keep 
over  a  considerable  period,  as  winter  apples,  are  more  stable  in 
price  than  thr  se  that  are  perishable,  as  berries  or  peaches.  The 
tendency  is  certainly  toward  cheaper  good  fruit,  but  there  is 
also  a  growing  discriminating  taste  for  fruit  of  the  best  quality 
and  the  number  of  consumers  who  are  willing  and  able  to  pay 
a  fair  price  for  a  good  article  is  fast  increasing.  As  wealth 
increases  this  discrimination  in  favor  of  the  best  w?ll  become  even 
more  pronounced  than  it  is  today. 

The  successful  fruit  grower  must  be  well  grounded  il/.  the 
principles  of  growing  fruit  and  the  many  problems  that  are  sure 
to  present  themselves  in  the  course  of  the  annual  round  of 
duties.  Not  only  is  it.. desirable  that  he  know  how  to  grow 
fruit  but  he  must  know  how  to  market  it.  In  other  words,  he 
must  be  a  good  business  man.  Some  of  the  most  successful  fruit 
growers  and  horticulturists  have  been  men  who  were  not  raised 
in  the  work  but  have  taken  it  up  late  in  life  and  succeeded  largely 
because  of  their  business  training  and  ability.  This  is  not  to 
,ay  that  farmers'  sons  do  not  make  good  farmers,  but  they  often 
fail  to  get  the  most  out  of  their  farm  practice  owing  to  the  lack 
of  business  training.  In  this  respect  another  man  may  perhaps 
excel,  although  he  may  not  understand  the  practice  of  "handling 
the  land.  The  fruit  industry  is  especially  suited  to  the  man  of 


18  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

ready  resources  who  can  quickly  adapt  himself  to  changes  of 
situation. 

Choice  of  Locations. — Most  people  who  are  making  a  spe- 
cialty of  fruit  growing,  and  most  farmers  who  contemplate  a 
change  to  fruit  growing,  are  held  fast  by  social  ties,  by  land 
holdings  or  in  other  ways,  so  that  they  cannot  easily  change 
their  location  even  if  they  wished  to  do  so,  therefore  the  choice 
of  location  for  them  is  a  settled  fact.  If  they  engage  in  fruit 
growing  at  all  it  must  be  in  their  present  surroundings.  To 
them  it  is  a  selection  of  crops  and  methods  of  management  best 
suited  to  their  conditions.  If  fruit  growing  cannot  be  made 
profitable  where  they  are  they  had  better  devote  their  land  to 
other  purposes. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  small  class  of  people  who 
wish  to  grow  fruit  of  certain  kinds  who  do  have  the  opportunity 
of  changing  their  location.  For  such,  it  would  be  a  good  plan 
to  visit  the  principal  fruit  sections  and  thoroughly  study  their 
conditions  and  probable  future  before  locating  permanently.  In 
making  such  a  study  it  is  not  well  to  be  too  quick  to  form  an 
opinion  as  there  are  many  factors  to  be  considered.  Rarely, 
indeed,  is  it  desirable  for  a  grower  to  change  from  a  line  of 
fruit  growing  that  he  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  to  one  that 
is  very  different.  Occasionally  it  may  be  desirable  or  necessary 
to  do  so,  but  in  any  case  the  change  should  be  made  with  great 
caution.  The  successful  apple  grower  of  Missouri  may  make  a 
successful  California  orange  grower  after  he  has  had  experience, 
but  he  will  have  much  that  is  new  to  learn  before  he  can  do 
this.  The  man  who  is  starting  anew  in  the  growing  of  fruit  of 
any  kind  will  generally  find  it  best  to  start  in  a  small  way  and 
not  risk  too  much  on  a  single  venture. 

QUESTIONS— CHAPTER    I. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  accessibility? 

2.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  fruit  growing  section? 

3.  What  soils  are  best  adapted  to  different  fruits? 

4.  What  is  the  composition  of  limestone  soil?     Of  clay  loam?     Of 
sandy  loam?     Of  sandy  soil?     Of  mucky   soil?     Of  prairie  soil?     Of 
clay  'soil? 

"5.     What  is  meant  by  the  topography  of  a   country? 

6.  What  is  the  best  location  for  fruit  growing? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  things  upon  which  the  success  of  fruit 
growing  depends? 

8.  What  is  the  result  of  an  overproduction  of  fruit? 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  problems  with  which  a  fruit  grower  has 
to  contend? 


CHAPTER  II. 

SOME    FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES    OF    PLANT   GROWTH. 

The  roots  of  plants  are  made  up  of  several  distinct  parts. 
The  main  central  root  is  termed  the  tap  root  when  it  extends 
directly  downward  into  the  earth,  as  in  the  roots  of  Bur  Oak 
and  Black  Walnut.  When  a  plant  has  several  spreading  roots 
it  is  said  to  have  surface  roots,  but  such  roots  may  sometimes 
divide  and  go  deep  into  the  ground;  for  example,  the  roots  of 
the  Red  Oak  and  White  Pine.  Root  fibres  or  rootlets  is  the 
term  used  for  the  smaller  division  of  roots.  The  foregoing 
roots  have  hard  bark  and  do  not  feed  the  plant.  They  do  little 
more  than  anchor  it  in  place.  The  roots  feed  through  what 
are  known  as  the  root  hairs,  which  are  soft,  fresh,  young  roots, 
generally  white  in  color. 

The  collar  or  crown  of  a  plant  is  that  portion  where  the 
roots  and  top  unite.  It  is  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
This  portion  of  the  tree  is  frequently  injured  by  borers,  by  ice 
and  in  other  ways.  It  is  a  good  plan,  especially  in  the  case  of 
young  trees,  to  protect  them  in  winter  with  a  bank  of  earth 
around  the  collar. 

The  stems  of  plants  may  be  annual,  as  in  the  case  of  many 
garden  plants;  biennial,  as  in  the  case  of  the  raspberry  and 
blackberry,  and  perennial,  as  in  the  currants,  gooseberries  and 
fruit  trees.  Runners  are  creeping  stems,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
strawberry.  Suckers  are  stems  springing  up  from  roots  or 
underground  stems.  Thorns  are  modified  branches  and  live  for 
indefinite  periods  while  prickles,  like  those  on  the  gooseberry, 
are  modifications  of  the  bark  and  live  but  one  year. 

The  bark  covers  the  whole  exterior  of  the  trunk,  branches 
and  roots  and  serves  as  a  protection.  It  is  made  up  of  two 
parts,  the  outer  or  corky  layer  which  is  dead  bark,  and  the  in- 
ner, or  live  bark.  These  vary  much  in  appearance  and  thickness 
on  different  kinds  of  trees.  For  instance,  on  the  White  Birch 
the  corky  layer  is  pure  white,  very  thin  and  tough,  while  on' 
our  White  Pine  it  is  very  dark  brown  and  often  an  inch  or 


20 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


more  in  thickness  and  quite  brittle.  This  covering  of  bark  is 
quite  impervious  to  disease  where  intact,  but  there  are  gener- 
ally many  small  breaks  in  its  surface  through  which  disease 
may  enter  and  once  inside  the  bark  it  is  well  protected. 

Cracks  in  the  live  bark  are  most  common  in  early  summer 
when  growth  is  rapid.  Diseases  may  also  enter  through  some 
wound,  and  hence  the  desirability  of  covering  large  wounds 
with  some  impervious  material  to  keep  disease  out  of  the  plant. 
Buds  are  the  portions  of  plants  which  always  tip  new 
growth.  They  are  often  opposite,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Maple,  or 
alternate  as  in  the  apple,  pear,  plum  or  peach.  Adventitious 
buds  are  those  that  start  apparently  without  system.  Theoreti- 
cally, botanists  say  that  any  cell  may  grow  into  a  bud  so  that 

buds  may  appear  in  almost 
any  place  on  the  trunk,  roots, 
or  branches,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  orange  a  single  seed 
may  grow  three  plants,  one 
of  which  is  the  result  of  ordi- 
nary sexual  union  while  th» 
other  two  may  be  looked  up- 
on as  being  adventitious. 
Buds  may  produce  leaves  or 
flowers.  The  former  are 
termed  leaf  buds  and  the  lat- 
ter flower  buds.  These  are 
illustrated  in  Fig.  1.  They 
vary  in  shape,  time  of  forma- 
tion and  location  in  different 
plants.  Flower  buds  are  more 
liable  to  winter  injury  than 
leaf  buds.  Plants  that  are 
growing  fast  are  quite  liable 
to  form  only  leaf  buds  and 
often  fail  to  form  flower  buds. 
When  growth  is  rather  slow 
naturally  or  when  checked  by  artificial  means,  fruit  buds  are 
formed.  In  the  case  of  some  trees  that  do  not  come  into  bean 


Fig.  l.-Fruit  buds  of:  a.— Apple, 
b. — Plum.  c. — Peach.  The  crosses 
indicate  fruit  buds. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  PLANT  GROWTH.     21 


ing  readily,  girdling  is  sometimes  practiced  in  order  to  throw 
the  plant  into  bearing.  This  may  be  done  in  a  variety  of  ways 
but  should  not  be  attempted  except  in  the  case  of  trees  that 
seem  hopeless  otherwise. 

Girdling  may  be  done  successfully  as  follows: 
With  an  ordinary  cross-cut  saw,  cut  in  a  spiral  direction 
around  the  trunk  or  branch  to  be  treated  and  have  the  cut  end 
just  under  where  it  commenced  but  several  inches  below.  In 
this  way  the  circulation  of  sap  is  only  sufficiently  impeded  to 
cause  flower  buds  to  form.  Such  wounds  seldom  cause  serious 
injury  to  vigorous  trees.  This  work  should  be  done  in  June  if 
at  all,  but  is  seldom  a  desirable  practice. 

The  leaves  of  plants  are  made  up  of 
loose,  open  tissue  enclosed  in  a  thin  mem- 
brane. This  membrane  has  openings  in  it 
through  which  the  plant  takes  in  carbonic 
acid  gas,  i.  e.  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air, 
and  throws  off  large  quantities  of  water. 
It  is  through  these  openings,  called  stomata, 
that  diseases  frequently  enter  the  plant. 
Such  openings  also  occur  in  the  young 
twigs  of  some  plants.  It  is  in  its  green  por- 
tions that  the  plant  absorbs  and  assimilates 
food,  and  since  this  green  portion  is  formed 
almost  exclusively  in  our  fruit  plants  only 
in  the  presence  of  direct  sunlight,  the  im- 
portance of  Igts  of  sunlight  for  best  develop- 
ment of  these  plants  is  evident. 

The  flower  is  the  portion  of  the  tree 
designed  for  the  production  of  seed.  All 
the  parts  of  our  fruit  plants  in  a  natural 
state  seem  to  facilitate  this  object  Flow- 
ers are  often  imperfect,  as  in  the  case  ot 
some  forest  trees,  but  in  our  com- 
mon cultivated  fruit  plants  the  flowers  are  generally  perfect 
and  only  such  flowers  are  referred  to  here.  But  flowers  that  are 
perfect  may  be  self-sterile,  that  is,  may  not  be  fertile  to  their 
own  pollen  but  need  to  be  cross  fertilized. 


Fig.  2. — Trunk  of 
apple  tree  two 
Inches  in  diam- 
eter one  year 
after  girdli 
with 


girdling 


22  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

The  parts  of  the  flower  and  the  purpose  of  each. — The  parts 
of  the  flower  are  modified  1-eaves.  The  outside  covering  of  the 
flower  of  our  common  fruits  is  termed  the  calyx.  Its  purpose  is 
to  protect  the  more  tender  organs  and  it  is  generally  green  in 
color.  The  next  row  of  modified  leaves  of  the  flower  is  called 
the  corolla.  This  is  generally  white  or  of  some  conspicuous 


Fig.    3.— Flower  of  Duchess  of  Oldenberg  apple. 

color.  It  serves  as  a  protection  and  also  by  its  coloring  at- 
tracts insects  which  assist  in  pollination.  The  next  row  of 
modified  leaves  are  the  stamens.  They  are  of  various  forms, 
generally  tipped  with  a  small  pouch-like  vessel  in  which  the 
male  element,  known  as  pollen,  is  formed.  The  stem  is  called 
the  filament  and  the  pouch  the  anther.  The  pistils  are  the  fe- 
male organs  made  up  of  ovary  or  seed  pod,  style  or  stem,  and 
stigma,  which  latter  is  the  part  that  receives  and  holds  the  pollen 
which  grows  through  it  to  the  seed.  The  bright  colored  por- 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  PLANT  GROWTH.     23 

tions  and  the  nectar  attract  insects  that  aid  in  transferring  the 
pollen  from  one  flower  to  another.  The  edible  portions  of  the 
fruit  attract  birds  and  other  animals,  including  man,  who  aid 
in  distributing  the  seed. 

Fruit. — A  true  fruit  as  defined  by  botanists  is  the  ripened 
seed  v-essel  and  its   contents.    This   agrees  with  the  horticul- 


Fig.  4. — Diagrammatic  drawing  showing  how  pollen  grains  grow 
down  the  pistil  of  the  strawberry  and  unite  with  the  contents  of 
the  ovary  in  the  act  of  fertilization;  At  the  right,  cross  section 
through  flower  of  strawberry,  showing  its  parts. 

turists'  definition  so  far  as  fruits  such  as  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
apricots,  plums,  gooseberries  and  currants  are  concerned,  but 
in  the  case  of  strawberries,  blackberries  and  mulberries,  this 
definition  would  allow  us  to  claim  only  the  single  grains  on 
the  sides  of  the  berries  as  fruits,  while  in  these  fruits,  we  com- 
monly consider  the  fl-eshy  center  a  part  of  the  fruit.  These  lat- 
ter fruits  are  in  structure  much  like  an  ear  of  corn  with  an 


24  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

edible  cob.  The  word  fruit  as  used  by  the  fruit  grower  had  a 
certain  definite,  well  understood  significance  before  the  dawn 
of  scientific  botany  and  the  botanists  should  not  attempt  to 
change  the  significance  of  the  word. 

Pollen. — Pollen  grains  vary  in  form  but  are  cell-like  in 
structure  and  have  the  power  of  making  a  root-like  growth  into 
the  tissues  of  the  pistil  to  the  ovary  where  the  contents  of  the 
pollen  grain  unites  with  and  fertilizes  the  ovule.  Without  this 
process  taking  place,  seed  is  not  produced  and  it  is  seldom  that 
fruit  is  formed  at  all.  Pollen  from  one  distinct  kind  of  fruit 
will  not  fertilize  the  ovule  of  another  of  a  different,  distinct  kind 
but  each  is  restricted  to  a  very  close  limit.  For  instance,  the 
pollen  of  one  variety  of  the  apple  will  fertilize  other  apples 
but  will  not  fertilize  the  plum.  When  varieties  of  the  same 
or  nearly  allied  fruits  are  fertilized  with  the  pollen  from  one 
or  another,  they  are  said  to  be  crossed  and  the  operation  is 
termed  crossing.  The  results  from  this  work  are  seldom  well 
marked  in  the  crossed  fruit  although  the  skillful  operator  may 
sometimes  be  able  to  see  it.  But  the  results  of  the  cross  will 
show  in  the  seedlings  from  the  crossed  fruit  and  it  must  not 
be  expected  that  the  seedlings  will  partake  equally  of  the  nature 
of  each,  for  we  know  from  much  experience  that  the  results  of 
such  crosses  are  uncertain  and  irregular. 

Pollination. — Under  natural  conditions  flowers  are  pollen- 
Ized  in  various  ways,  but  chiefly  by  wind,  in  the  case  of 
plants  that  have  inconspicuous  flowers  such  as  corn,  pine, 
spruce  and  poplar;  and  by  insects  in  our  cultivated  fruits  and 
most  other  plants  which  have  conspicuous  flowers.  Some  flow- 
ers are  probably  pollenized  in  both  ways. 

Hybrids. — Where  a  cross  is  made  between  very  unlike  forms, 
as  between  the  sand  cherry  and  the  plum,  the  result  is  generally 
termed  a  hybrid.  The  difference  between  crosses  and  hybrids 
is  only  one  of  degree  and  of  late  years  there  has  been  a  tendency 
to  do  away  with  the  use  of  the  term  hybrid  altogether.  There 
is  a  very  common  impression  that  hybrids  are  exceedingly  rare 
and  of  more  value  than  ordinary  crosses  but  such  is  far  from 
being  the  case,  as  they  are  frequently  of  little  value  for  any 
purpose  and  often  fail  to  form  seed  and  even  to  set  fruit. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  PLANT  GROWTH.     25 


Fruit  Plants  from  Seed.— While  our  wild  plants  come  nearly 
true  from  seed,  our  cultivated  fruits,  which  have  come  from 
them,  will  not  come  true  but  will  show  a  decided  tendency  to 
resemble  the  wild,  inferior  forms.  Although  an  occasional  seed- 
ling may  be  a  decided  improvement  over  the  cultivated  kinds 
there  is  not  one  chance  in  a  thousand  of  getting  better  fruits 
than  those  we  now  have  by  saving  seed.  This  comes  from  the 
fact  that  we  do  not  grow  our  fruits  from  seed  but  by  grafting, 
budding,  etc.  If  they  were  grown  for  many  generations  from 


Fig. 


ing  variation  in  sizes  and  shapes  of  plums  grown  from 
the  same  lot  of  seed. 


seed  it  would  undoubtedly  be  possible  to  get  them  to  come 
as  true  to  type  as  our  garden  vegetables.  It  must  be  noticed 
that  a°  there  are  no  two  plants  exactly  alike  the  strongest  ten- 
dency in  plants  is  to  be  unlike.  Some  cultivated  fruit  plants  that 
come  nearly  true  from  seed  are  a  few  local  varieties  of  the  peach, 
the  Wyant  plum  and  such  strawberries  as  the  Alpine  and  St. 
Anthony  de  Padua. 

The    yearly    round    of    life    in    plants    consists    of    a    rapid 
growth   tn  the  spring,  during  which  time  the  plant  is  using  up 


•26  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

the  store  of  food  accumulated  the  year  before.  After  this  rapid 
growth  has  passed  comes  a  period  of  slower  growth  in  which  the 
wood  is  said  to  ripen.  That  is,  it  becomes  hard  by  reason  of  its 
cells  becoming  filled  with  starch  or  other  plant  food  which 
Is  used  to  start  growth  in  the  spring.  When  this  is  completed 
active  growth  stops,  but  plant  food  is  probably  being  stored 
up  as  long  as  the  leaves  still  remain  green.  When  we  have 
warm,  moist  weather  late  in  autumn,  active  growth  sometimes 
starts  again  and  some  of  this  plant  food  is  changed  to  unstable 
comipounds  which  may  result  in  winter  killing.  Some  varieties 
are  much  more  liable  to  start  in  this  way  than  others.  No 
characteristic  of  hardiness  in  plants  is  more  certain  than  ear- 
ly maturity  of  wood. 

Assimilation. — Plants  are  made  up  of  various  tissues  and 
these  are  composed  of  numerous  cells.  The  material  of  which 
the  cells  are  composed  is  largely  carbon.  This  carbon  is  de- 
rived from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air  which  enters  the 
leaves,  and,  under  the  action  of  light,  air  and  water  is  decom- 
posed; the  oxygen  is  given  off  and  the  carbon  is  retained  and, 
combining  with  water  obtained  from  the  roots,  forms  starch, 
sugar,  gum  and  other  plant  foods.  This  process  of  food  mak- 
ing is  called  assimilation  and  can  be  carried  on  only  in  the  green 
parts  of  the  plant  and  in  these,  only  when  exposed  to  light  and 
air.  Hence  foliage,  air  and  light  are  essential  elements  for 
plant  growth,  and  the  greater  the  quantity  and  better  the  de- 
velopment of  foliage  and  the  more  light  this  foliage  has  at 
its  disposal  for  its  work  the  more  vigorously  will  the  tree  grow. 

In  general,  therefore,  the  growth  of  the  fruit  and  wood  may 
be  reduced  either  by  the  removal  of  foliage,  which  reduces 
the  working  surface,  or  by  shading,  which  somewhat  checks 
the  activity  of  the  foliage  by  hindering  light  action. 

Transpiration. — The  flow  of  sap  in  trees  is  not  well  un- 
derstood. In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  sapwood 
transmits  the  water  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves,  where  a  part 
enters  into  the  assimilated  sap  and  goes  to  build  up  the  plant, 
and  the  remainder,  which  is  by  far  the  greater  part,  passes  off 
as  vapor.  The  amount  thus  transpired  varies  greatly  with  the 
species,  age  of  the  tree,  amount  of  foliage  at  work,  amount  of 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OP  PLANT  GROWTH.     27 

light  at  its  disposal,  climatic  conditions  and  the  condition  of 
tree  growth.  The  amount  of  water  transpired  is  so  large  in 
comparison  to  the  amount  retained  in  the  tree  that  while  an 
acre  of  forest  may  store  in  its  trees  1000  pounds  of  carbon, 
15  or  20  pounds  of  mineral  substance  and  5000  pounds  of  water 


Fig.    6. — Abnormal  flower  of  strawberry  with  seven  petals;  not  unusual. 


28  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

in  a  year,  It  may  have  taken  from  the  soil  and  given  off  to 
the  air  from  500,000  to  1,500,000  pounds  of  water  or  from  one- 
quarter  to  one-half  as  much  as  agricultural  crops.  It  has  been  es- 
timated that  the  leaves  of  deciduous  trees  transpire  one-sixth  to 
one-third  as  much  water  as  an  equal  surface  of  water.  Large 
deciduous  trees  undoubtedly  give  off  as  much  as  a  barrel  of  water 
a  day  in  dry  summer  weather.  Coniferous  trees  transpire  much 
less  water  than  most  deciduous  trees,  frequently  not  over  one- 
sixth  as  much. 

Mineral  substances  are  taken  up  by  plants  in  small  quanti- 
ties and  consist  mostly  of  lime,  magnesia,  potash  and  phos- 
phorus. They  are  carried  to  the  leaves  where  they  are  used, 
(perhaps  also  on  their  passage  through  the  tree),  with  a  part 
of  the  water  in  food  preparation.  The  main  part  of  the  mineral 
substances  taken  up  remains,  as  the  water  transpires  in  the 
leaves  and  young  twigs,  and  is  returned  to  the  soil  when  the 
leaves  are  shed. 

Rest  period  of  plants. — With  very  few  exceptions,  all  plants 
require  an  occasional  rest  period  for  their  best  development. 
Some  species  get  it  naturally  by  being  dried  and  others  by  be- 
ing frozen.  Even  when  plants  are  kept  under  growng  condi- 
tions the  year  round,  they  have  periods  of  rest  and  of  active 
growth.  During  the  rest  period  plants  undergo  very  few 
changes,  and  yet  there  is  undoubtedly  some  growth  during 
mild  weather  in  winter,  and  as  evaporation  must  be  going  on 
most  of  the  time  from  twigs  and  buds  water  must  be  supplied 
from  the  roots. 

Classification     of    fruits. — The     commercial    fruits    of    the 
world  may  be  grouped  under  the  following  heads,  of  which  only 
the  more  important  Northern  grown  fruits  are  referred  to  here. 
Class  I.     Orchard  culture  or  tree  fruit  culture. 
Sub-class 

I.     Pomaceous  fruits:     Apple,  pear,  quince. 
II.    Drupaceous  or  stone  fruits:     Plums,  peach,  cherry. 

III.  Citrus  fruits:     Orange,  lemon,  lime,   etc. 

IV.  Moraceous  fruits:    Mulberry,  fig. 
V.    Anonaceous  fruits:     Pawpaw. 

VI.  Myrtaceous  fruits:     Guava. 

VII.  Sapotaceous  fruits:     Sapodilla. 

VIII.  Anacardiaceous  fruits:     Mango. 

IX.  Ebenaceous  fruits:     Persimmon. 

X.  Leguminous  fruits:     St.  Johns  bread,  tamarind. 

XI.  'Nut  fruits:    Nuts  of  various  kinds. 

XII.  Palmaceous  fruits:     Cocoanut,  date.  etc. 

XIII.  Miscellaneous  tree  fruits:    Olive,  pomegranate. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  PLANT  GROWTH.     29 

Class   II.     Vine   fruit  culture. 
Sub-class 

I.     Viticultural  fruits:     Grape. 
II.     Passifloraceous  fruits:     Granadilla. 
Class  III.     Small  fruit  culture. 
Sub-class 

I.     Bush   fruits: 

Group  (a)     Rubaceous  fruits:    Raspberry,  blackberry. 

(b)  Ribaceous    fruits:      Currants    and   goose- 

berries. 

(c)  Miscellaneous  fruits:     Jtmeberry,  buffalo- 

berry. 

II.     Strawberry  culture:     Strawberry. 
III.     Cranberry  culture:     Common  cranberry. 
Class  IV.     Non-woody  or  herb-like  fruits. 
Sub-class 

I.     Musaceous  fruits:     Banana. 
II.     Pineapple. 
III.    Cactaceous  fruits:     Prickly  pear. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  more  than  ten  thou- 
sand varieties  of  our  commonly  cultivated  fruits  in  America. 
In  order  to  study  these  satisfactorily  some  method  must  be 
found  to  classify  them.  This  matter  will  be  found  worked  out 
in  the  various  books  on  systematic  pomology.  Botanists  have 
found  it  convenient  to  group  plants  under  the  head  of  class,  or- 
der, genus,  species,  varieties.  The  same  classification,  of  course, 
applies  to  the  larger  groups  in  horticulture;  but  the  horticultur- 
ist has  gone  farther  than  the  botanist  with  his  classification 
and  has  divided  his  plants  into  varieties. 

A  variety  is  made  up  of  a  group  of  individuals  which  differ 
from  the  rest  of  its  species  in  certain  recognizable  particulars 
which  are  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation  without 
material  modification.  The  horticulturist  makes  into  groups 
more  or  less  definite  the  varieties  having  certain  important 
traits  in  common,  as,  for  instance,  when  he  groups  certain  va- 
rieties of  vegetables  or  fruits  together.  New  varieties  of  fruits 
are  being  continually  offered  by  the  trade,  and,  although  not 
one  in  ten  of  those  sent  out  is  as  good  as  those  commonly 
grown,  yet  from  time  to  time  marked  improvement  is  made. 


QUESTIONS— CHAPTER  II. 

1.  What   Is   the   root   system   of  plants   made   up   of? 

2.  Of   what    value   are   these    parts   to   the   plant? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  "collar  or  crown?" 

4.  Why   does   this  portion    of   the  tree   need  protection? 

5.  When    are    plants    annuals?   biennials?    perennials? 


30  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

6.  What   are    runners?   suckers?   thorns?    prickles? 

7.  Of   what   use    is    the    bark? 

8.  What    is    it   made    up    of? 

9.  How  do   these   parts   vary   in  different  plants? 

10.  What   are    the   buds? 

11.  What  are  adventitious  buds? 

12.  What  are  the  characteristics     of  the  leaf?  flower?  bud? 

13.  How  are  fruit   buds   formed? 

14.  What  is   meant   by   girdling?      - 

15.  How    is    it    accomplished? 

16.  What  are    leaves   made   up   of? 

17.  How   are    they    constructed? 

18.  What    functions    do    the    leaves    perform    for    the    plant? 

19.  What  functions   do  the  flowers  perform  for  the   plant? 

20.  What  are   the   different   parts   of   the  flower? 

21.  How  is  each  constructed  and  for  what  purpose? 

22.  What   is   a   fruit  as  defined   by   botanists?   by  horticultur- 
ists? 

23.  How    is    it    constructed? 

24.  What   is   pollen? 

25.  What  are    its   characteristics? 

26.  How    are    plants    crossed? 

27.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "hybrid?" 

28.  How  are  flowers  pollinated? 

29.  To   what   extent    do    fruit    plants   come   true    from   seed? 

30.  What  is  the  cause  of  this? 

31.  What  local  varieties   come   true   from  seed? 

32.  What   course    of   growth    does    the   plant   take    throughout 
the  year? 

33.  What    Is    meant   by    the    process    of   assimilation? 

34.  How   is    it    carried    on    in    plants? 

35.  What   is   the   result   of   removing  foliage   from   a   plant? 

36.  What  is  meant  by   transpiration? 

37.  What     approximate     amounts     are     transpired     from     the 
leaves    of   deciduous   trees? 

38.  What  minerals  are  taken  up  from  the  ground  by  plants? 

39.  How  is  it  returned  to  the  soil? 

40.  What  is  the  need  of  a  rest  period  for  plants? 

41.  How   should    they   be   cared   for   during    this   period? 

42.  How    may    commercial    fruits    be    grouped? 

43.  What   is   the  most   convenient  way  of  classing  fruits? 

44.  What  is  a  variety? 


CHAPTER  HI. 

THE  PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  ORCHARD. 

Selection  of  Varieties. — When  a  decision  has  been  reached 
as  to  the  kinds  of  fruits  which  are  to  be  grown  and  a  location  has 
been  selected,  it  is  necessary  to  choose  the  particular  varieties 
which  are  best  suited  to  the  purpose  in  mind.  Those  which  are 
grown  for  "home  use  or  for  a  special  nearby  market  may  be  quite 
different  from  those  grown  for  shipment  to  a  distant  market. 
It  often  happens  that  varieties  of  the  very  best  quality  do  not 
carry  well  or  are  not  of  attractive  appearance;  these  should  be 
grown  for  home  use  or  for  the  special  market  where  quality  is 
the  first  consideration,  while  for  the  distant  market  the  only 
varieties  which  should  be  grown  are  those  which  ship  well  and 
are  attractive.  Quality  is  rather  a  secondary  matter  in  a  mar- 
ket fruit,  though  discriminating  buyers  are  often  willing  to  pay 
a  premium  for  varieties  of  particularly  good  quality. 

Varieties  of  fruits  to  grow. — The  varieties  of  fruits  best 
adapted  to  a  given  location  cannot  be  named  without  special  and 
careful  study.  Some  varieties  are  very  profitable  in  one  local- 
ity but  close  by,  in  another  locality,  they  may  be  a  failure.  The 
matter  of  selection  of  varieties  for  profitable  culture  is  one  of 
the  most  important  subjects  the  fruit  grower  has  to  consider. 
There  are  many  new  varieties  of  fruit  introduced  each  year  and 
only  a  few  of  them  are  any  better  than  old  standard  sorts,  while 
the  greater  part  have  very  serious  faults. 

Among  the  varieties  of  fruit  in  cultivation,  we  may  distin- 
guish two  general  classes: 

(a)  Varieties  of  great  vigor  and  productiveness,  adapted  for 
a  wide  range  of  country.  These  are  oftentimes  somewhat  infe- 
rior to  the  best  in  quality  but  are  of  good  appearance  and  good 
enough  in  quality  for  the  average  market.  Among  such  vari- 
eties may  be  named  the  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  Talman  Sweet 
and  Ben  Davis  apples;  Bartlett  and  Anjou  pears;  Lombard  and 
Quackenboss  plums;  Crawford  and  Elberta  peaches;  Concord 


32  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

and  Niagara  grapes;  King  and  Marlboro  raspberries;  Snyder 
blackberry,  and  Dunlap,  Splendid  and  Bederwood  strawberries. 
These  varieties  do  well  over  a  large  extent  of  country.  Some 
of  them  may  not  bring  the  highest  prices  in  our  markets  but 
they  sell  well  and  are  the  popular  standards. 

(b)  Varieties  that  are  very  particular  about  location  and 
are  not  generally  successful,  but,  where  they  do  well,  produce 
fruit  of  very  superior  quality.  Among  this  class  of  fruits  may 
be  mentioned  the  Yellow  Newtown,  Gravenstein  and  Williams 
apples;  Green  Gage  plum;  Bosc  pear;  Columbia  peach;  loua 
grape;  Herstine  raspberry;  Lawton  blackberry  and  Jucunda 
strawberry. 

In  selecting  varieties  for  growing  the  fruit  grower  sliould 
choose  those  that  are  adapted  to  his  market  for  it  is  there  they 
are  to  be  finally  tested.  The  fruit  grower's  success  is  depend- 
ent on  how  the  market  regards  his  product,  and  he  should  not 
expect  to  change  the  prevailing  desires  of  people  very  much. 
There  is,  however,  much  in  the  power  of  a  good  example  and 
there  is  a  growing  number  of  people  who  are  particular  as  to 
the  quality  of  their  food  and  are  willing  to  pay  a  fair  price  for 
it.  The  fruit  grower  should  net  try  to  sell  white  strawberries, 
raspberries  or  currants,  for  the  general  markets  demand  that 
they  be  red  in  color  and  blackberries  must  be  black  and  not  red 
or  white.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  attempt  to  change  prevailing 
opinions  in  such  matters  for  the  sake  of  pushing  some  new  vari- 
ety, no  matter  how  good  its  quality.  By  this  it  is  not  meant  that 
the  market  will  not  use  the  unusual  kinds  but  it  does  not  desire 
them.  In  general,  the  market  wants  large  size,  bright,  warm 
colors  and  at  least  fair  quality  in  fruits. 

The  fruit  grower  should  not  select  varieties  because  they  are 
doing  well  elsewhere  but  should  become  familiar  with  the  expe- 
rience of  fruit  growers  in  his  section  and  get  in  touch  with  tho 
officers  of  the  experiment  station  of  his  state  and  advise  with 
them  in  these  matters.  The  reports  of  his  local  horticultural 
society  should  be  very  helpful  and  they  must  be  poor  indeed  if 
he  cannot  get  some  benefit  from  them. 

Choose  varieties  that  will  pollenize  well  together. — It  should 
be  more  generally  known  that  there  are  some  varieties  of  fruits 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  ORCHARD.      33 

that  are  self-sterile  and  will  not  be  productive  unless  near  other 
similar  kinds.  The  following  partial  lists  show  varieties  that 
are  both  self-sterile  and  self-fertile  but  it  is  quite  possible  that 
some  of  these  may  be  self-sterile  at  one  time  and  self-fertile  at 
another  time  or  in  another  locality. 


Fruit 

Plums 

Self-sterile 

Miner 
Wild  Goose 
Mariana 
Itasca 

Self-fertile 
Robinson 
De  Soto 
Forest  Garden 
Cheney 

Grapes 

Brighton 
Wilder 

Concord 
Niagara 
Agawam 
Delaware 

Apples 

Winesap 
Gravenstein 
Northern  Spy 

Ben  Davis 
Duchess 
Baldwin 
Red  Astrakan 

Pears 

Bartlett 
Anjou 
Nelis 

Flemish  Beauty 
Clairgeau 
Kieffer 

An  experiment  with  the  Kieffer  pear  at  the  Michigan  Agri- 
cultural College  during  the  summer  of  1907  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  Kieffer  ought  sometimes  to  go  on  the  self-sterile  list. 
A  Kieffer  tree  was  enclosed  in  a  canopy  of  muslin  with  one 
branch  left  outside  the  canopy.  The  air  within  the  canopy  was 
made  to  circulate  daily  by  artificial  means  during  the  blossom- 
ing period  so  as  to  insure  pollination  of  at  least  some  of  the 
flowers.  Not  a  fruit  set  under  the  canopy,  while  the  branch 
that  was  left  outside  and  was  free  to  receive  foreign  pollen  set 
fruit  freely. 

Preparing  the  land. 

(a)  The  land  on  which  the  fruit  plantation  is  to  stand 
should  be  in  as  good  condition  as  possible  before  the  fruit  plants 


34  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

are  set  out.  Do  not  leave  this  work  to  be  done  after  the  plants 
are  set  for  it  costs  more  to  do  it  then  and  the 'plants  will  very 
likely  be  injured  in  the  process. 

(b)  New  land  should  be  thoroughly  cleared  of  stumps  and 
roots  before  the  orchard  is  planted,  and  better  results  will  be 
obtained  if  the  land  is  cultivated  for  a  year  or  two  before  the 
trees  are  set. 

(c)  Old    land    should    be    in   good    physical    condition    and 
should  contain  a  good  supply  of  humus.    While  heavy  fertiliza- 
tion is  not  necessary,  the  soil  should  be  rich  enough  to  enable 
the  trees  to  make  a  good  growth,  but  must  not  be  too  rich  in 
nitrogen. 

(d)  Fall  plowing  is  almost  always   desirable,  whether  the 
trees  are  to  be  set  in  the  fall  or  the  spring.     If  the  planting  is 
to  be  done  in  the  fall,  the  plowing  should  be  completed  several 
weeks  previous,  to  give  the  soil  time  to  settle.     Deep  plowing  is 
usually  best,  as  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  soil  mellow  and  easily 
penetrated  by  roots  to  a  considerable  depth.     If  the  subsoil  is  a 
hardpan  clay  it  is  often  desirable  to  explode  dynamite  in  the 
holes  to  loosen  the  lower  layers. 

Time  to  Plant. 

(a)  In  severe  locations  and  with  the  more  tender  kinds  of 
fruits  early  spring  is  undoubtedly  the  best  time  for  planting. 
It  is  also  the  best  time  for  the  beginner,  as  there  is  less  liability 
of  failure  in  spring  planting. 

(b)  For  the  hardy  fruits,  such  as  apples,  plums  and  pears, 
in  sections  where  there  is  little  danger  of  winter  injury,  autumn 
is  possibly  the  best  season  for  planting. 

(c)  It  is  often  desirable  to  plant  in  autumn  even  though 
extra  care  is  required  in  order  to  save  the  crowding  of  work  in 
the  spring.     In  severe  locations  autumn  planting  may  often  be 
practiced   successfully,  providing  the  stems   of  plants   are  laid 
flat  on  the  ground  after  planting  and  covered  with  a  few  inches 
of  earth,  and  afterwards  mulched  on  the  approach  of  winter. 
In  doing  such  work  the  location  of  the  top  of  the  tree  should 
be  marked  with  a  stake  so  that  it  may  be  found  easily  in  the 
spring  when  it  is  to  be  uncovered.     Autumn  planting  is  often 
a  convenient  practice  and  may  save  the  necessity  of  doing  such 
work  in  the  spring  when  fruit  growers  are  generally  crowded. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  ORCHARD.      35 

Where  to  Buy. — As  nursery  stock  cannot  be  fully  judged  by 
its  appearance  as  easily  as  many  other  lines  of  merchandise, 
buyers  are  very  dependent  upon  the  representations  made  to 
them  by  the  parties  from  whom  they  purchase.  As  a  rule,  it  is 
desirable  to  buy  of  the  nearest  reliable  man  who  will  furnish 
what  is  wanted  at  a  fair  price.  Purchasers  will  often  find  it 
advantageous  to  deal  directly  with  the  principal  instead  of 
through  his  agent.  Expect  to  pay  a  fair  price  and  be  suspicious 
of  bargain  counter  nursery  stock,  for  the  buyer  in  any  case  is 
greatly  dependent  upon  the  honesty  of  the  seller  for  the  genuine- 
ness of  his  stock.  You  cannot,  always  tell  what  it  is  by  its 
appearance.  It  may  not  even  be  true  to  name. 

Selecting  the  Tree  Nursery  Stock. 

(a)  It  is  important  to  secure  vigorous,  thrifty  nursery  stock 
that  is  free  from  scale  insects,  root  lice  or  other  injurious  insects 
or  diseases. 

(b)  Select  trees  that  have  their  bark  green  and  smooth 
and  that  have  made  a  thrifty  growth  the  year  before. 

(c)  In  the  case  of  grafted  fruits  the  fruit  grower  should 
insist  upon  having  his   stock   worked  on  roots  adapted  to  his 
location.     This  feature  does  not  need  so  much  attention  in  the 
best  fruit  sections,  but  in  cold,  northern  climates,  in  the  extreme 
South  and  in  some  other  locations  it  is  a  matter  of  first  impor- 
tance.    This  matter  is  discussed  under  the  propagation  of  each 
fruit. 

(d)  In  order  to  make  early  autumn  delivery  it  is  customary 
in  some  nurseries  to  strip  the  leaves  from  the  trees.    This  is  not 
the  best  practice  and  such  trees  should  not  be  selected. 

Age  of  Nursery  Stock  to  Buy. 

As  a  rule  young,  thrifty  nursery  stock  is  to  be  preferred. 
The  tendency  among  beginners  is  to  use  stock  which  is  too  old. 
Old  plants  are  much  more  injured  by  moving  than  those  that  are 
young  and  often  give  poorer  results. 

Shapes  of  Trees. 

(a)  The  general  public  wants  a  tree  that  is  of  good  form 
and  the  nurserymen  prefer  to  grow  that  kind. 


36 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


(b)  Some  of  our  best  varieties  are  so  crooked  that  they 
do  not  look  well  and  hence  have  not  been  pushed  by  our  nursery- 
men. 


Fig.  7. —  Young:  apple  trees  of  different  forms. 

(c)  The  difference  in  the  habits  of  trees  can  be  easily  seen 
in  any  orchard  of  many  varieties.  The  upright  form  of  the  Tetof- 
sky  apple  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  spreading  form  of  the 
Roxbury  Russet.  The  spreading  form  of  the  Wild  Goose  plum 
is  very  different  from  that  of  the  Lombard.  A  person  who  is 
very  familiar  with  the  appearance  of  certain  varieties  of  pears 
or  apples  can  easily  separate  them  from  other  kinds  by  the 
appearance  of  the  tree  even  when  devoid  of  foliage.  From  this 
the  impression  should  not  be  taken  that  all  fruit  trees  may  be 
distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  forms,  color  of  bark  and 
other  characteristics,  for  while  a  person  of  much  experience  in 
this  line  may  thus  distinguish  many  kinds,  it  is  quite  out  of  the 
question  to  separate  the  members  of  all  our  long  lists  of  fruits  in 
this  wav. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  ORCHARD.      37 

Planting  the  Orchard. 

There  are  a  number  of  systems  of  setting  trees.  The  ones 
most  generally  used  are  the  square,  quincunx  and  hexagonal 
systems.  The  lay  of  the  land  and  the  size  of  the  orchard  will 
influence  to  some  extent  the  choice  of  a  system.  Trees  are  more 
often  set  too  close  than  too  far  apart.  This,  in  fact,  is  the  danger 
in  using  fillers.  (The  use  of  fillers  is  discussed  on  page  46.) 
One  does  not  like  to  remove  a  tree,  once  it  is  grown,  even 
though  it  is  injuring  other  trees. 

It  is  always  important  that  the  rows  run  straight  both  ways 
since  the  orchard  looks  better  and  is  cared  for  more  easily.  The- 
first  thing  to  do  is  to  establish  a  base  line  and  work  from  this. 
It  is  usually  safer  to  have  a  surveyor  establish  this  line  than  to 
trust  to  a  road  or  fence  unless  the  road  is  known  to  be  on  the 
proper  line.  Having  the  base  given,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to 
establish  the  two  perpendiculars  to  this  and  the  fourth  side  par- 
allel to  the  base.  This  gives  the  outside  trees  of  the  orchard. 
Then,  by  using  the  outside  trees  as  sight  stakes  the  other  rows 
may  be  made  straight  both  ways.  If  the  land  is  laid  off  with  a 
marker  one  way  and  a  plow  the  other,  the  trees  are  quite  easily 
put  where  they  belong  by  sighting  to  the  trees  set  at  the  ends  of 
the  rows. 

Square  System. — Of  the  systems  named  above  the  square 
system  is  the  most  often  used.  It  does  not  permit  of  so  many 
trees  per  acre,  but  is  easily  laid  out,  permits  of  easy  cultivation 
and  allows  systematic  thinning  of  trees  later  in  its  life  when 
the  trees  crowd. 


P 

F 
P   . 

F 
P 

F 
F 
P 
F 
F 

P 
F 
P 
F 
P 

F 
F 
F 
F 
F 

P 
P 

P 
F 
P 

P  P 

Square  System  Square  System  with  Fillers 


38  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Quincunx  System. — This  system  permits  of  planting  many 
more  trees  per  acre  than  the  square  system.  It  also  permits  the 
use  of  fillers  and  provides  for  a  well  laid  out  orchard  when  the 
fillers  are  cut  out. 


p  p  F        P        F         r         7 

p  p  P  PFPFP 

P  P  F  P  F  P  7 

P  P  P  PFPFP 

Quincunx  System  Quincunx  System  with  Fillers 

Hexagonal  System. — About  15  per  cent  more  trees  are  used 
in  planting  by  the  hexagonal  than  by  the  square  system.  It  has 
the  advantage  of  distributing  the  trees  more  evenly  over  the 
ground  than  the  other  systems.  Its  disadvantage  is  that  cultiva- 
tion is  much  more  difficult.  It  does  not  permit  of  any  satisfac- 
tory method  of  thinning  out  the  trees  without  leaving  too  large 


P  P  P  PFPFPF 

F          F  F          F          F 

P  P  P  F  P  F  P  F  P 

F  F  F  F  F 

P  P  P  PFPFPF 

Hexagonal  System  Hexagonal  System  with  Fillers 

Digging  the  Holes. 

(a)  In  digging  the  holes  make  them  large  enough  to  receive 
the  roots  without  crowding  and  deep  enough  as  a  rule  to  bring 
the  union  of  the  stock  and  cion  well  below  the  surface.  Trees 
should  generally  be  planted  a  little  deeper,  say  from  four  to 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  ORCHARD.      39 

eight  inches,  than  they  grew  in  the  nursery.  In  severe  locations 
and  on  gravelly  soils  they  are  frequently  planted  a  foot  deeper 
to  protect  from  frost  injury. 

(b)  In  the  case  of  fruit  trees  of  best  planting  out  size,  if  the 
land  has  been  properly  plowed  and  furrowed  out  only  a  little 
digging  will  be  required. 

(c)  In  digging  holes  in  shallow  .soil  put  the  surface  and 
subsoils  separate  and  then  use  the  surface  soil  to  cover  the  roots 
and  put  the  subsoil  on  top. 

(d)  Firm  the  soil  around  the  roots  of  the  trees  until  it  is 
solid.     For  this  purpose  it  is  a  good  plan  to  use  a  packer  of 
wood  such  as  is  used  to  firm  the  soil  around  posts.    This  is  espe- 
cially important  on  dry  soils. 

Pruning  the  Trees. 

(a)  Trees  may  be  left  until  after  they  are  set  out  Derore 
pruning  but  sometimes  it  may  effect  quite  a  saving  in  freight 
to  prune  the  trees  before  they  are  shipped  from  the  nursery. 

(b)  Severe   pruning   is   often   needed   for   young  trees    as 
much  depends  upon  the  forming  of  the  tree  when  young.     The 
subject  of  pruning  is  more  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  IV. 

(c)  Perhaps   no  question  is  more  important  than  that  of 
deciding  at  what  height  the  trees  should  branch  out.     This  will 
depend  much  on  location.    Trees  with  long  trunks  certainly  tend 
to  make  cultivation  methods  easy  and  in  very  favorable  sections 
they  may  be  safely  thus  trained.     In  the  Middle  states  and  the 
Pacific  coast  states,  best  results  have  come  from  allowing  the 
branches  of  trees  to  start  within  two  feet  of  or  close  to  the 
ground  and   thus  the  trunk  is  protected  against  sunscald  and 
other  climatic  troubles.    Fruit  may  be  harvested  more  easily  and 
cheaply  from  trees  with  low,  open  heads. 

(d)  It  is  generally  advisable  to  shorten  the  roots  of  ordinary 
two-year-old    apple    and    pear    trees    and    vigorous    one-year-old 
plum  and  peach  trees  to  about  eight  inches,  where  there  are  sev- 
eral roots,  as  such  treatment  facilitates  planting  and  does  not 
injure  the  trees.     Larger  trees  should  have  their  roots  shortened 
in  the   same  proportion   and   the  ragged  ends   of  roots  should 
always  be  cut  off  before  planting.     Such  pruning  as  this  may 
easily  be  done  with  a  sharp  hatchet  on  a  block. 


40  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Cultivation    of  Fruit   Plantations. 

In  a  state  of  nature,  as  in  our  primeval  forests  and  groves, 
where  trees  do  well,  they  generally  have  the  surface  soil  about 
their  roots  covered  with  a  loose  accumulation  of  vegetable  mould 
that  is  shaded  from  the  sun  and  wind.  The  deeper  soil  is  filled 
with  roots  more  or  less  decayed  and  tending  to  keep  the  sub- 
soil porous.  This  covering  protects  the  soil  from  baking,  drying 
out  and  becoming  too  compact  and  gives  the  conditions  aimed  at 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  land.  For  this  kind  of  treatment,  there 
must  be  a  great  accumulation  of  vegetable  mould,  which  is  in- 
compatible with  the  light  and  air  needed  for  the  production  of 
cultivated  fruit  and  with  the  opportunity  to  get  at  the  trees 
from  all  sides  for  gathering  the  fruit  and  for  giving  the  pro- 
tection that  the  trees  need  from  noxious  insects  and  diseases. 
The  nearest  approach  to  nature's  method  of  cultivation  is  ac- 
complished by  mulching  the  orchard,  which  is  sometimes  done 
to  advantage. 

The  reasons  for  proper  cultivation  are:  (a)  To  give  our 
favorite  plants  all  the  light,  air  and  soil  that  they  can  use  to 
advantage  by  destroying  all  competitors  in  the  shape  of  weeds 
which  would  ordinarily  make  their  struggle  for  existence  more 
severe,  (b)  To  protect  from  drought  by  keeping  the  top  soil 
loose.  In  this  way  evaporation  is  prevented  and  the  moisture 
saved  in  the  soil  for  the  use  of  the  roots.  Soil  that  is  compact 
will  transmit  water  upward  to  the  surface  by  capillary  attraction 
where  it  can  evaporate,  but  when  the  surface  soil  is  loose  evapo- 
ration is  prevented  and  the  water  thus  transmitted  from  the 
subsoil  is  retained  near  the  surface.  This  is  one  of  the  chief 
reasons  for  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The  extent  of  this  pro- 
tection is  shown  in  the  following  table  taken  from  "Soils  and  Fer- 
tilizers" by  Professor  Harry  Snyder  and  giving  the  result  of 
some  examinations  made  in  dry  weather: 

Per  cent  of  Water  in  Field. 
With  Shallow  Surface  Without 

Cultivation.  Cultivation. 

Soil  depth  3  to    9  inches 14.21  8.02 

Soil  depth  9  to  15  inches 17.21  12.38 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  ORCHARD.      41 

(c)  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  also  sets  plant  food  free.  It  opens 
the  soil  up  so  that  the  air  can  get  in  and  assist  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  plant  food  locked  up  in  an  insoluble  form.  This 
is  an  important  function  of  tillage.  The  soil  should  be  regarded 
as  a  great  laboratory  in  which  many  complex  organic  and  inor- 
ganic changes  are  continually  taking  place. 

Humus  is  the  decayed  organic  matter  found  in  soils.  It 
much  resembles  common  charcoal  in  its  physical  properties,  has 
great  affinity  for  water  and  holds  fertilizing  agents  in  the  soil. 
Humus  makes  the  soil  porous  so  that  the  air  can  readily  pene- 
trate it  and  also  assists  in  chemical  changes.  Since  it  keeps 
the  soil  porous  it  prevents  it  from  baking  hard,  thus  protecting 
it  from  drought.  It  is  largely  on  account  of  these  qualities  of 
humus  that  stable  manure,  a  large  per  cent  of  which  is  humus, 
is  often  so  much  more  effective  than  commercial  fertilizers.  The 
plowing  in  of  green  crops  adds  humus  to  the  soil.  The  contin- 
ued cultivation  of  the  soil  sometimes  affects  it  injuriously  by 
oxidizing  all  the  humus  and  leaving  it  in  such  a  condition  that 
It  washes  badly  and  will  not  hold  moisture.  A  good  illustration 
of  this  change  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  newly  cleared  land  will 
seldom  wash  badly  until  the  decayed  organic  matter  in  the  soil 
has  become  so  thoroughly  oxidized  that  the  humus  no  longer  holds 
the  soil  together.  After  this  organic  matter  has  disappeared  clay 
soils  lose  their  loose,  porous  texture  and  become  hard,  com- 
pact and  liable  to  wash. 

The  value  of  humus  in  the  soil  is  well  illustrated  by  experi- 
ments at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station.  Corn,  grown  con- 
tinuously for  six  years  on  the  same  field,  yielded  an  average  of 
21.4  bushels  per  acre,  while  corn  in  a  three-rotation,  including 
wheat  and  clover,  yielded  47.1  bushels  per  acre.  As  the  plot 
producing  corn  continuously  has  sufficient  plant  food  to  mature 
a  normal  crop  annually,  the  low  yield  can  only  be  accounted  for 
by  the  poor  physical  condition  of  the  soil  produced  through  the 
depletion  of  the  humus  by  frequent  cultivation. 

Growing  fruit  trees  in  sod  is  a  practice  not  to  be  generally 
recommended,  but  where  the  soil  conditions  are  especially  favor- 
able it  may  sometimes  be  done  to  good  advantage.  In  locations 
where  trees  are  especially  liable  to  injury  from  drought  it  is  a 


42  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

poor  practice.  In  the  retentive  soils  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin, 
Iowa  and  -elsewhere,  apples  may  be  grown  to  great  perfection 
by  spading  up  the  soil  about  the  tree  for  a  distance  of  three 
or  four  feet  from  the  trunk  each  spring  and  later  in  the  season 
mowing  the  grass  and  weeds  and  putting  them  around  the  trees. 
However,  such  locations  are  exceptional  and  the  great  truth  re- 
mains that,  in  general,  orchards  which  are  kept  in  sod  are  sel- 
dom profitable.  When  orchards  are  in  a  stiff  sod  the  rain  water 
is  prevented  from  soaking  into,  the  land  because  an  old  sod  on 
steep  hillsides  sheds  water  readily.  The  grass  roots  also  carry 
up  large  amounts  of  water  from  the  soil,  which  is  evaporated 
and  lost. 

Mulching. — Growing  trees  and  oth-er  plants  by  mulching  may 
sometimes  be  successfully  practiced.  Some  of  the  points  to 
be  considered  in  this  connection  are: 

a — There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  protective  values  of 
different  kinds  of  mulch.  A  covering  of  coarse  weeds  may  af- 
ford little  protection,  while  a  mulch  of  hard-wood  sawdust  would 
give  excellent  results. 

b — Trees  that  are  grown  by  mulching  generally  do  best 
when  the  soil  about  them  is  worked  in  the  spring  before  the 
mulch  is  applied. 

c — A  mulch  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  close  to  trees 
where  the  soil  near  them  is  hot  easily  cultivated.  In  such  cases  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  protect  the  tree  trunks  with  galvanized  iron 
wire  netting  from  injuries  by  mice  which  are  especially  attracted 
by  the  mulch. 

d — Raspberries,  blackberries,  currants  and  gooseberries  may 
be  grown  by  a  system  of  mulching  without  cultivation  but  it  is 
seldom  desirable  to  grow  them  in  this  way. 

e — While  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  not  as  successful  in 
the  conservation  of  moisture  as  mulching,  yet  when  the  best 
cultivation  is  practiced  it  is  far  better  than  mulching  as  com- 
monly done. 

f — Mulching  fruit  plants  the  year  around  without  spring  work- 
ing of  the  soil  tends  to  encourage  a  development  of  large  surface 
roots  which  may  later  be  winter-killed.  Large  surface  roots 
also  interfere  with  cultivation  when  mulching  is  discontinued, 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  ORCHARD.  43 

although  the  risk  of  permanent  injury  from  this  source  is  much 
less  than  is  generally  supposed. 

g — Mulching  sometimes  causes  great  danger  by  fire. 

h — The  mulch  about  plants  may  harbor  insects,  such  as  cur- 
culio,  etc.,  which  might  injure  the  trees.  These  are  most  easily 
kept  in  check  by  clean  cultivation;  but  where  fruit  trees  are 
mulched,  pasturing  hogs  in  the  orchard  will  greatly  help  in  check- 
ing the  spread  of  such  insects  as  remain  in  the  fruit  after  it 
falls. 

Cover  crops  is  a  term  used  in  connection  with  the  growing 
of  crops  in  orchards.  In  a  general  way,  the  best  fruit  growers 
are  a  unit  in  believing  in  the  importance  of  clean  cultivation  for 
orchards.  However,  as  we  have  already  noted,  this  is  often 
impractical  on  steep  hillsides  liable  to  wash  badly.  Clean  cul- 
tivation also  leads  finally  to  a  poor  condition  of  the  soil  which 
can  only  be  fully  remedied  by  the  addition  of  humus.  This  humus 
may  be  added  by  the  application  of  coarse  stable  litter  or  other 
organic  matter  directly  to  the  land.  In  this  case  the  humus  is 
confined  almost  entirely  to  the  few  upper  inches  and  is  not  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  soil  as  it  is  by  the  growth  of  clover  or 
similar  crops.  The  decaying  roots  of  a  cover  crop  leave  humus 
both  in  the  sub-soil  and  in  the  surface  soil,  thus  rendering  the 
whole  mass  more  porous. 

Still  other  advantages  of  cover  crops  are  (a)  they  protect  the 
soil  to  some  extent  from  deep  and  sudden  freezing  and  thawing; 

(b)  they  prevent  the  snow  from  blowing  away  in  the  winter; 

(c)  such  cover  crops  as  clover  and  peas  not  only  improve  the 
physical  conditions     of  soils  on  which     they  grow,  but  actually 
leave  them  richer  in  nitrogen.     On  this  account  plants  of  this 
class  are  especially  desirable  for  orchards,     (d)     They  are  some- 
times helpful  in  checking  the  production  of  the  wood  in  late  sum- 
mer by  using  up  some  of  the  plant  food  and  moisture  in  the  soil. 
This  checking  of  late  growth  in  the  fall  ripens  up  the  wood 
earlier,  leaving  the  tree  in  better  shape  to  stand  the  winter. 

How  to  combine  the  advantages  of  cover  crops  and  cultiva- 
tion is  often  an  important  question  for  orchardists.  In  many 
fruit  sections,  this  may  be  done  by  the  cultivation  of  the  soil 
during  the  summer  and  seeding  down  to  some  cover  crop  in  the 


44  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

late  summer  or  early  autumn.  This  may  be  a  crop  that  will  kill 
out  in  winter  or  that  will  live  over  and  be  allowed  to  grow  on  the 
land  until  late  in  spring,  when  it  is  turned  under.  Occasionally 
it  may  be  a  good  plan  to  seed  an  orchard  down  to  clover  for  a 
year  or  two  in  order  to  increase  the  humus  in  the  soil;  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  case  of  soils  on  steep  hillsides  where  the  humus 
is  nearly  exhausted.  For  this  purpose  the  land  should  preferably 
be  plowed  in  late  autumn  and  the  clover  seed  sown  in  early 
spring  without  any  nurse  crop. 

Examples  of  practical  use  of  cover  crops. — Cover  crops  are 
of  various  kinds,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  following: 

(a)  Peach   growers   of    Michigan    and   apple   growers   and 
nurserymen  in  Minnesota  use  oats  in  their  orchards,  sown  from 
the  first  to  the  middle  of  August,  to  protect  the  roots  from  severe 
freezing.     Such  a  cover  holds   the   leaves  in  autumn  and  the 
snows  in  winter,  thus  preventing  frequent  freezing  and  thawing 
as  well  as  deep  freezing  of  the  ground. 

(b)  Crimson  clover  is  an  excellent  cover  crop  for  parts  of 
New  York  State  and  south  to  Alabama.     It  should  be  sown  in  late 
summer  or  early  autumn  in  New  York  but  later  in  Alabama 
where  it  grows  all  winter. 

(c)  Buckwheat  is  a  good  cover  crop  for  steep  slopes  or 
other  places  where  it  may  be  desirable  to  use  a  cover  crop  in 
summer.     It  shades  the  ground  and  aids  it  in  holding  moisture, 
thus  preventing  the  soil  from  drying  out. 

(d)  Vetches  and  cowpeas  may     sometimes  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage for  a  cover  crop  and  should  be  sown  in  early  spring. 
The  cowpea  is  the  great  cover  crop  of  the  Southern  states. 

(e)  The  soy  bean  is  a  good  cover  crop.     It  Is  sown  in  mid- 
summer in  rows. 

(f)  The  velvet  bean  and  beggar  weed  are  great  cover  crops 
for  the  extreme  Southern  states. 

(g)  Mammoth  clover  and  alfalfa  may  be  used  as  cover  crops 
if  plowed  under  the  second  or  third  year.     They  should  be  sown 
in  orchards  without  a  nurse  crop  in  the  early  spring.     Sometimes 
they  are  sown  in  the  orchard,  leaving  a  space  of  four  feet  for 
cultivation  by  the  side  of  the  rows  of  trees. 

Amount  of  seed  of  cover  crops  to  sow  per  acre. — The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  number  of  pounds  of  seed  required  per  acre 


PLANTING  AND  CARE,  OF  THE  ORCHARD.     '  45 

to  obtain  a  good  stand  of  the  cover  crops  generally  used  in  this 
country: 

Nitrogen   Collectors.  Nitrogen  Consumers. 

Alfalfa    40  Ibs.          Rape    9      Ibs. 

Hairy  Vetch   40  Ibs.  Turnip    2      Ibs. 

Cowpeas  90  Ibs.  Rye    30      Ibs. 

Soy   Beans    90  Ibs.  Oats    2      bu. 

Velvet  Beans 25  Ibs.  Barley    . 1%  bu. 

Mammoth  Clover   ....20  Ibs.  Buckwheat    %  bu. 

Crimson    Clover    20  Ibs.          Corn    y2  bu. 

Sweet  Clover  15  Ibs. 

Crops  in  the  orchard. — The  question  of  cropping  the  orchard 
is  an  important  one.  As  a  rule  this  should  never  be  done,  yet 
it  may  often  happen  that  while  the  trees  are  young,  before  they 
need  all  the  space  between  them,  some  other  crop  can  be  grown 
on  the  land  to  advantage.  In  such  a  case,  the  soil  must  be  man- 
ured or  it  may  run  down  so  much  that  the  fruit  crop  will  not  be 
profitable.  The  best  test  to  apply  to  this  is  to  see  that  the  young 
trees  make  a  reasonable  growth  of  wood  each  year  and,  with  this 
accomplished,  there  is  no  danger  in  cropping  the  orchard. 

A  cover  crop  may  permit  a  fair  growth  of  wood  but  will  so 
rob  the  soil  of  moisture  late  in  the  summer  that  the  fruit  will 
fail  to  fill  out  properly. 

The  small  grains  are  especially  objectionable  in  the  or- 
chard because  they  do  not  permit  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  nor 
shade  it  sufficiently  to  keep  it  from  baking.  These  crops  also 
take  much  plant  food  from  the  soil. 

Potatoes  and  corn  require  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  ID 
summer  and  consequently  are  among  the  best  to  grow  in  the- 
orchard.  In  the  orchard  preference  should  be  given  to  those, 
crops  that  do  not  require  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  in  late  sum- 
mer or  early  autumn,  since  cultivation  seems  to  encourage  late 
growth  of  wood.  If  the  orchard  is  to  be  cropped  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  not  impaired  thereby,  and 
ordinarily  it  will  be  necessary  to  add  manure  to  replace  tb«j 
plant  food  removed. 


46  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Small  fruits  of  various  kinds  may  be  used  in  orchards  but 
must  be  removed  when  the  trees  get  large  enough  to  need  all 
the  land.  It  may  often  be  a  help  to  an  apple  orchard  to  have 
the  tree  trunks  shaded  by  small  fruits,  such  as  raspberries  and 
currants. 

Planting  with  fillers  is  the  name  given  to  the  system  of  plant- 
ing whereby  an  extra  number  of  trees  are  set  out  with  the  pur- 
pose of  cutting  them  out  as  soon  as  they  get  large  enough  to 
crowd  the  trees  that  are  to  grow  to  maturity.  Good  examples 
of  this  practice  are  found  in  the  planting  of  peaches  or  plums 
in  the  intervals  between  apples,  or  in  planting  twice  as  many 
peaches  or  plum  trees  on  the  land  as  can  grow  to  maturity, 
the  intention  in  each  case  being  to  cut  out  one-half  of  them  as 
soon  as  the  trees  begin  to  crowd.  This  is  not  a  bad  practice 
when  well  carried  out  but  in  the  hands  of  the  average  fruit 
grower  the  thinning  process  is  seldom  begun  soon  enough. 
This  may  result  in  serious  injury  and  is  always  harmful. 

Fruit  Crops  and  Plant  Food. 

The  most  important  factor  in  the  growing  of  a  fruit  or 
other  agricultural  crop  is  the  proper  preparation  of  the  soil. 
This  should  be  attended  to  before  anything  is  attempted  in  the 
way  of  fertilization  of  the  land.  Get  the  soil  into  the  best  physi- 
cal condition  and  then  manure*  may  be  used  to  best  advantage. 
In  the  case  of  orchards  in  new  forest  land  it  is  poor  practice  to 
plant  until  the  stumps  and  trash  are  well  subdued,  except  where 
mulching  is  to  be  practiced,  since  the  soil  can  be  cleaned  most 
economically  before  the  trees  are  planted  out. 

All  agricultural  soils  contain  plant  food  in  two  forms: 

(a)  Where  the  soil  is  rich  in  plant  food  which  is  easily 
available  to  the  roots  of  plants  and  which  they  can  absorb  read- 
ily.   This  is  the  condition  of  the  soils  in  new  fruit  growing  sec- 
tions where  the  land  has  not  yet  been  cropped  extensively.    Such 
soils  may  also  contain  a  large  amount  of  plant  food  which  is  not 
readily  available. 

(b)  Soils  also  contain  plant  food  in  a  form  which  is  not 
readily  available  to  the  roots  of  crops.    This  is  the  condition  of 

*As  here  used,  the  term  "manure"  Includes  both  animal  manures 
and  commercial  fertilizers. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  ORCHARD.      47 

the  largest  amount  of  plant  food  in  all  soils  and  especially  so 
in  the  case  of  soils  that  have  been  poorly  tilled  for  long  periods. 

Each  year  a  portion  of  the  insoluble  plant  food  in  the  soil 
is  made  soluble  or  put  into  such  a  condition  that  the  roots  of 
plants  can  use  it.  In  the  soils  of  the  older  sections  the  soluble 
plant  food  is  largely  used  up  and  sometimes  only  the  amount 
that  is  set  free  each  year  is  available  to  the  plants.  It  is  this 
store  of  food  that  we  should  aim  to  supplement  by  the  manures 
which  we  apply  to  the  soil. 

There  are  some  new  soils  so  rich  in  plant  food  that  nothing 
is  gained  by  manuring  them.  In  fact,  fruit  trees  on  such  soils 
are  occasionally  damaged  by  the  use  of  manures  which  encour- 
ages a  late  growth  in  autumn,  but  such  cases  are  rare.  Prac- 
tically all  our  fruit  lands,  especially  those  in  the  older  fruit 
growing  sections,  are  greatly  improved  by  the  addition  of 
manures.  This  is  especially  true  of  bearing  orchards. 

In  manuring  the  orchard  the  object  is  to  get  the  maximum 
crop.  The  average  crop  or  one  just  below  the  average  is  sel- 
dom profitable,  being  generally  inferior  in  quality  as  well  as  in 
quantity.  It  comes  in  competition  with  the  crops  of  all  the  poor- 
est fruit  growers  and  is  sold  only  to  people  of  small  means. 

The  application  of  manure  is  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the 
most  profitable  crop.  It  matters  not  how  much  money  we  put 
into  our  land  providing  we  can  take  it  out  with  a  good  profit. 
In  other  words,  expensive  manuring  may  be  most  profitable.  It 
is  the  best  grower  that  gets  the  profitable  crop.  Manure  will 
not  take  the  place  of  good  tillage,  insect  protection  and  other 
similar  factors,  but  the  well  fed  plant,  like  the  well  fed  animal, 
will  overcome  adverse  conditions  under  which  the  weak,  under- 
fed individual  will  succumb. 

The  elements  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  fruit  crops 
are  the  same  as  those  that  compose  our  farm  crops.  They  dif- 
fer largely  in  the  relative  proportions  in  which  they  enter  vari- 
ous crops,  but  as  our  information  about  the  composition  of  the 
soils  in  which  our  plants  grow  is  indefinite,  and  as  we  use 
manures  to  supplement  the  plant  food  in  the  soil,  we  need  not 
be  particular  about  the  exact  proportions  in  which  we  apply  it. 
Each  grower  should  study  his  own  soil  conditions  and  the  ef- 
fects of  different  manures  on  it  in  order  to  get  the  best  results. 


48  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

The  chemical  elements  composing  our  fruit  and  agricultural 
crops  are  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  phosphorous,  suilui, 
iron,  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium,  chlorin  and  silicon. 
Nitrogen,  potassium  and  phosphorous  are  the  elements  commonly 
lacking  in  the  soil  and  it  is  these  that  we  look  for  in  the  so- 
called  commercial  fertilizers  and  manures.  These  elements 
each  act  differently  in  affecting  vegetation.  To  be  used  by  the 
plants  they  must  be  soluble  in  the  soil  solutions.  Soil  that  has 
an  excess  of  soluble  nitrogen  in  it  encourages  a  vigorous,  soft 
growth  of  wood  and  a  dark  green  color  in  the  leaves.  Often 
such  plants  are  unproductive,  but  when  they  bear  fruit  it  is  gen- 
erally large  in  size.  On  such  land  trees  are  liable  to  grow  late 
in  autumn  and  as  a  consequence  winter-kill.  For  peaches,  such 
soil  is  more  injurious  than  for  apples  and  other  hardy  crops. 
Nitrogen  encourages  a  growth  of  wood  rather  than  fruit.  Large 
amounts  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  in  the  soil  cause  a  firm, 
solid  growth  of  wood,  early  maturity  of  plant,  high  color  and 
extreme  fruitfuln-ess  but  do  not  increase  the  size  of  the  fruit 
like  nitrogen.  Potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  with  the  proper  pro- 
portions of  nitrogen,  give  the  best  results,  all  of  these  -elements 
being  necessary  for  healthy  plant  growth. 

Amount  of  plant  food  in  a  crop  of  apples. — It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  taken  from  the  land  by  a  crop  of  seventy-five  barrels  of 
apples — that  number  being  used  as  it  represents  a  good  aver- 
age crop  of  apples  per  acre. 
TABLE  SHOWING  THE  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  75 

BARRELS  OF  APPLES. 

Water        Dry  Matter        Nitrogen        Phos.  Acid        Potash 

9563  Ibs.        1687  Ibs.  4.5  Ibs.  2.25  Ibs.        11.25  Ibs. 

or  85%  or  15%  or  .04  %  or  .02%  or  .1% 

To  raise  this  crop  of  apples  there  are  perhaps  50  trees, 
each  one  of  which  is  fifteen  years  old  and  in  its  branches,  trunk 
and  roots,  there  are  400  pounds  of  wood  of  which  40%  is  water. 
It  is  probably  fair  to  assume  that  the  weight  of  the  new  growth 
of  wood  of  a  thrifty  apple  tree  at  fifteen  years  of  age  is  twenty 
pounds  per  year,  from  which  the  amount  of  plant  food  used  for 
the  production  of  wood  each  year  can  be  readily  computed.  It 
is  also  safe  to  assume  that  the  amount  of  plant  food  yearly  set 


PLANTING  AND  CARE,  OF  THE  ORCHARD.      49 

free  in  the  soil  is  sufficient  to  take  care  of  this  growth  of  wood. 
Th-e  leaves  are  returned  to  the  soil  and  hence  the  material  in 
them  does  not  have  to  be  supplied  to  the  soil.  Therefore,  if  we 
supply  enough  plant  food  to  put  back  that  taken  away  from  the 
land  in  the  crop,  we  will  keep  our  land  in  good  condition.  There 
is  nothing  exact  about  such  statements,  as  they  may  vary  as 
much  as  different  soils  do  from  one  another.  The  following 
table  shows  approximately  the  amount  of  plant  food  materials 
removed  in  one  year  from  the  soil  of  an  acre  of  land  fully 
stocked  with  thrifty  trees.  This  includes  the  amount  contained 
in  the  new  wood,  foliage  and  fruit: 
PLANT  FOOD  REMOVED  FROM  THE  SOIL  BY  ONE  ACRE  IN 

ORCHARD. 
Nitrogen     Phos.  Acid     Potash        Lime     Magnesium 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

Apple  51.5  14  55  57  23 

Peach  74.5  18  72  114  35 

Pear  29.5  7'  33  38  11 

Plum  29.5  8.5  38  41  13 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  found  in  a  good  crop  of  fruit  grown  on 
one  acre: 

PLANT  FOOD  OF  MANURIAL  VALUE  REMOVED  FROM  THE 
LAND  BY  VARIOUS  FRUIT  CROPS. 


Fruit 

Pounds 

Nitrogen       Phos.  Acid 

Potash 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Apples 

11,250 

4.5 

2.25 

11.25 

Pears 

10,000 

4 

1 

12 

Plums 

7,200 

7 

3.6 

14.4 

Peaches 

4,950 

4 

2 

9 

Quinces 

7,200 

8 

3.6 

17.2 

Raspberries 

4,800 

5.6 

4.3 

12 

Blackberries 

4,800 

9.6 

2.4 

11 

Strawberries 

4,000 

5.2 

2 

9.2 

Currants 

4,000 

12 

4.8   • 

12 

Gooseberries 

4,000 

6 

2.8 

.8 

Grapes 

6,000 

9 

4.2 

18 

This  manurial  value 

may  be  applied  to 

the  land 

in  many 

forms.    Maynard 

gives  the 

following  formulas 

50  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

(a)  For  fruit  trees  over  ten  years  of  age  (forty  trees),  vary- 
ing in  quantity  according  to  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  crop, 
250  to  500  pounds  of  fine  ground  bone,  100  to  300  pounds  of  sul- 
fate  of  potash,  50  to  150  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

(b)  Unleached  hardwood  ashes  at  the  rate  of  one  to  two 
tons  per  acre  and  500  pounds  of  fine  ground  bone. 

(c)  400  to  600  pounds  of  South  Carolina  rock,  ground  fine, 
100  to  300  pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash,  100  to  300   pounds   of 
nitrate  of  soda. 

(d)  Barnyard  manure,  6  tons  per  acre. 

No  manure  needed  in  some  cases. — In  the  case  of  some  new 
and  extra  fertile  fruit  soils  there  may  be  no  apparent  diminu- 
tion of  fertility  of  the  soil  for  many  years.  Such  soils  may  often 
be  maintained  in  their  best  condition  indefinitely  without  the 
addition  of  manures  by  the  use  of  nitrogen-gathering  cover 
crops,  such  as  clover,  vetches  and  peas. 

Time  to  apply  manures  to  fruit  lands. — In  the  case  of  fresh 
animal  manure  not  yet  decayed,  there  is  little  loss  ordinarily  in 
applying  it  broadcast  as  soon  as  removed  from  the  stables  or 
yards.  As  a  rule  this  is  the  most  economical  way  to  handle 
it  and  is  the  general  practice  among  good  farmers,  fruit  growers 
and  gardeners.  However,  partly  decomposed  manures  contain 
so  much  soluble  plant  food  that  the  loss  might  be  very  serious 
were  the  manure  applied  to  the  surface  of  frozen  ground.  Such 
manure  is  most  economically  applied  in  the  spring  and  at  once 
covered  by  a  light  plowing  or  harrowing.  Such  manure  should 
generally  be  covered  at  once  after  applying  and  not  allowed  to 
dry  out  on  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

It  is  generally  best  to  apply  commercial  manures  to  fruit 
plantations  in  the  early  spring  or  early  summer.  This  is 
especially  true  of  such  soluble,  quick  acting  fertilizers  as  ni- 
trate of  soda  and  muriate  of  potash.  These  may  be  applied  broad- 
cast to  the  soil  about  the  trees.  The  surface  covered  should 
generally  be  fully  as  large  as  the  diameter  of  the  top  of  the  tree 
but  in  the  case  of  upright  trees  a  larger  surface  should  be  cov- 
ered. When  the  land  is  well  stocked  with  mature  trees  the 
manure  should  always  be  applied  to  the  whole  surface  of  the 
soil. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  ORCHARD.      51 

Irrigation  of  Fruit  Crops. — In  some  fruit  sections  special  care 
must  be  taken  to  provide  for  the  proper  irrigation  of  all  crops, 
while  in  others  water  need  only  be  applied  in  very  dry  seasons. 
It  is  always  advisable,  if  it  can  be  arranged  at  a  reasonable  cost, 
to  provide  water  for  such  crops  as  strawberries  and  blackberries, 
so  that  it  may  be  used  when  needed.  In  some  seasons  a  failure 
of  the  strawberry  or  raspberry  crop  may  be  averted  by  applying 
water  at  the  right  time. 

In  arid  regions  where  crop  growth  depends  on  irrigation  a 
careful  study  must  be  made  of  the  needs  of  the  crop  and  the 
soil,  and  the  time  and  manner  of  applying  water.  Outside  of 
the  irrigated  districts  thorough  cultivation  of  a  crop  is  better 
than  irrigation,  unless  water  is  absolutely  needed.  Cultivation 
should  always  follow  irrigation  where  possible. 

QUESTIONS— CHAPTER    III. 

1.  How  are  varieties  of  fruits  adapted  to  different  districts? 

2.  How  may  the  varieties  be  classified  in  regard  to  their  adapta- 
tion? 

3.  What   general   principles   should   the   fruit   growers   follow   in 
selecting  varieties  for  planting? 

4.  How  and  when  should  land  be  prepared  before  planting  fruit 
trees? 

5.  When  i$  the  best  tinie  for  planting? 

6.  How  should  the  fi'uit  grower  select  his  nursery  stock  in   ref- 
erence to  the  hardiness,  age  and  shape  of  the  trees? 

7.  What  methods  may  be  followed  in  setting  out   the  trees? 

8.  How  should  the  holes  be  dug  for  the  trees? 

9.  What  pruning  do  the  young  trees  need  when   set  out? 

10.  What  treatment  does  the  soil  need  in  a  fruit  orchard? 

11.  What  are  the  reasons  for  cultivation  of  the  soil? 

12.  What  is  humus?     Oh  what  value  is  it  in  the  soil? 

13.  How  may  fruit  trees  be  grown  in  sod? 

14.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  mulch  to  a  fruit  crop?     What 
are  the  disadvantages? 

15.  What  is  a  cover  crop?     What  are  the  advantages  of  a  cover 
crop? 

16.  How   may   the  advantages  of  cover  crops   be  combined  with 
cultivation? 

17.  What  field  crops  are  used  as  cover  crops  for  the  orchard? 

18.  How   much   seed   should   be  sown   per   acre   in   order  to   get  a 
good  cover  crop? 

19.  Is  it  practicable  to  raise  garden  crops  in  the  orchard?    What 
crops  are  best  to  grow? 

20.  How  is  the  orchard  planted  with  fillers? 

21.  What  is  the  best  way  to  get  new  fruit  growing  land  into  the 
best  physical  condition? 

22.  In  what  two  forms  is  plant  food  found  in  the  soil? 

23.  What  is  the  result  of  a  soil  too  rich  in  plant  food  for  fruit 
growing? 

24.  What  is  the  purpose  of  applying  manures  to  the  land? 

25.  What    are   the   elements    that    enter  into   the   composition   of 
the   fruit  crop? 


52  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

26.  What  effect  does  an  excess  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  have  upon 
fruit  crops? 

27.  What   effect   does   an   excess   of   potash  and  phosphoric   acid 
in  the  soil  have  upon  the  fruit  crops? 

28.  How   is-  the   plant    food     taken   from    the   soil   by    the  plants 
returned  to  it  naturally? 

29.  What  are   some  of  the  formulas  for  combining  and  applying 
different   fertilizers  to   the   soil? 

30.  When  should  manures  be  applied  to  fruit  lands? 

31.  What  is  the  general  practice  of  applying  manures  to  the  land? 

32.  When  should  commercial  fertilizers  be   applied  and  how? 

33.  When  is  a  supply  of  water  for  irrigation  desirable? 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PRUNING. 

Careful  watching,  pruning  and  care  are  necessary  in  the 
handling  of  a  fruit  plantation  if  the  best  results  are  to  be 
obtained.  The  day  is  past  when  the  successful  orchardist  can 
afford  to  set  his  trees  and  let  nature  take  care  of  them.  He  must 
spray  and  prune.  Under  natural  conditions  nature  prunes  sur- 
plus branches  and  trees,  but  when  those  trees  are  grown  in  an 
orchard  and  plenty  of  room  is  given  for  growth  and  development 
certain  shaping  and  training  must  be  given  to  get  symmetrical 
and  useful  trees. 

Reasons  for  Pruning. — Trees  are  pruned  for  a  variety  of 
reasons,  among  which  are  the  following: 

(1)  To  remove  dead  and  diseased  wood.    Nearly  all  trees 
have  dead  and  diseased  limbs  some  time  during  the  year,  which 
must  be  removed  in  order  to  keep  the  tree  healthy. 

(2)  To  allow  sunlight  and  air  to  get  into  the  branches  and 
aid  in  keeping  the  tree  healthy.    If  the  branches  grow  too  thick 
the  fruit  in  the  tree  will  not  color  up  as  it  should. 

(3)  To  aid  in  the  production  of  first  class  fruit.     Too  much 
wood  will  form  on  a  tree,  thus  causing  the  tree  to  bear  too  heav- 
ily and  consequently  produce  small,  poorly-colored  fruit. 

(4)  To  secure  shape  and  size  that  will  enable  spraying,  cul- 
tivating and  picking  to  be  easily  and  economically  done. 

(5)  To  protect  the  tree  from  injurious  winds  and  injuries 
resulting  from  climatic  conditions,  as  sunscald,  sleet  storms,  etc. 

(6)  To  rebuild  and  give  more  vigor  to  weak  trees  or  weak 
limbs.     It  is  often  best  to  replace  trees  of  this  sort  with  new  ones. 

(7)  To  remove  bruised  or  injured  branches  or  roots. 

(8)  To  restore  the  balance  between  roots  and  top  in  the 
case  of  setting  out  young  trees. 

The  effect  of  pruning  and  the  necessity  for  pruning  depend 
upon  climatic  conditions  to  some  extent.  In  a  humid  district 


54  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

the  tree  should  perhaps  be  more  open  than  in  a  dryer  district 
to  permit  more  sunlight  to  enter  the  top  of  the  tree. 

Too  open  a  head  in  some  districts  might  lead  to  sunscald  of 
tree  and  fruits.  In  the  irrigated  districts  much  extra  wood  is 
cut  out  and  still  the  fruits  of  the  trees  must  not  be  exposed  too 
much.  In  many  districts  it  is  well  to  prune  very  little  other  than 
to  remove  dead  wood  and  interlocking  branches. 

Pruning  the  Young  Tree. — Pruning  should  commence  with, 
the  setting  of  the  young  tree.  When  it  is  received  from  the 
nursery  all  bruised  roots  should  be  shortened  with  a  sharp  knife. 
The  top  should  be  cut  back  to  correspond  to  the  amount  the 
root  has  been  shortened. 

If  the  climatic  conditions  are  moist  and  the  soil  rich,  not  as 
much  wood  will  need  to  be  removed  as  in  a  dry  season  when 
the  soil  and  atmosphere  are  dry.  Some  growers  even  advocate 
very  severe  root  and  top  pruning  as  is  given  by  those  who  follow 
the  Stringfellow  method.  This  system  is  probably  too  severe 
for  general  planting. 

Start  the  Head  Low. — If  a  tree  is  properly  handled  from  the 
time  it  is  planted  little  heavy  pruning  will  be  needed.  Heavy 
pruning  is  always  objectionable  since  the  wounds  do  not  heal 
over  as  readily  as  the  small  ones  and  are  thus  more  apt  to  cause 
permanent  injury  to  the  trees.  Any  branches  that  interlock  or 
that  are  giving  the  tree  an  unbalanced  appearance  should  be 
taken  out.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  a  low-headed  tree  is 
the  best  type  to  grow  because  the  spraying  and  picking  of  the 
fruit  may  be  more  easily  and  economically  done  and  there  is  less 
danger  from  storms.  The  head  should  be  started  from  18  to  24 
inches  from  the  ground.  If  properly  handled  this  will  permit 
of  easy  cultivation.  Too  many  branches  should  not  be  allowed 
to  make  up  the  head  or  it  will  become  crowded.  Three  or  four 
are  plenty  and  with  careful  attention  will  form  a  symmetrical 
head. 

When  to  Prune. — Small  limbs  may  be  taken  off  at  any  time 
of  the  year.  Large  limbs  should  be  taken  when  the  tree  is  dor- 
mant. The  best  time  is  in  late  winter  just  before  growth  starts. 
There  is  less  danger  of  the  wound  drying  out  and  cracking  if 
done  then  than  if  done  early  in  the  fall.  Pruning  is  usually 


PRUNING. 


.35 


done  at  any  time  during  the  winter  when  there  is  no  frost  in 
the  wood.  Pruning  tools  will  break  much  easier  when  the  wood 
is  frosty.  The  winter  is  often  the  slack  season  in  fruit  districts 
and  the  work  can  be  done  cheaper  then.  Some  pruning  may  be 

done  at  the  end  of  the 
growing  season  in  late 
summer,  but  this  is  apt 
to  start  a  late  fall  growth 
which  is  objectionable  in 
the  colder  districts. 

Cut  Close  and  Clean. — 
B     First,    make   a    study   of 
the  tree  to  be  pruned  and 
then   follow    some   defin- 

Fig.  8.-Effect  of  pruning.  a.-Scar  ite  Plan  to  train  that 
from  a  limb  properly  removed,  after  tree.  The  best  orchard- 
two  years,  b. — Stub  left  from  care-  .  .  ,  .  .  ,  ,  .  , , 
less  pruning.  >st  obtainable  should 

do   the   work.     All    cuts 

should  be  made  with  sharp  tools  and  close  to  the  shoulder. 
Stubs  should  never  be  left  as  they  will  not  heal  over  and  only 
cause  decay  in  the  tree.  In  making  the  cut,  if  it  be  a  large  limb, 
saw  from  the  bottom  up  a  short  distance,  then  take  the  saw  out 
and  saw  down  so  as  to  meet  the  under  cut.  This  will  prevent 
the  limb  splitting  off  and 
causing  serious  injury  to 
the  tree.  Always  make  a 
clean  sharp  cut.  It  will 
heal  much  quicker  than 
a  rough,  bruised  or  jag- 
ged one. 

Paint  the  Cut. — It  is  a 
good  plan  to  apply  a 
thick  white  lead  paint  to 
any  wounds  over  an  inch 
in  diameter  as  this  keeps 
the  wood  from  drying 
out.  Paint  only  the 
wounded  part.  Grafting 


a/. 


Pig.  9. — Result  of  cutting  too  far  from 
trunk,  a. — Section  showing  stub. 
b. — Decay  from  long  stub  penetrat- 
ing heart  of  tree. 


56 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


wax  is  an  especially  good  material  to  use,  but  is  too  expensive 
for  ordinary  use  where  many  limbs  are  to  be  painted. 

Tools. — Good  tools  kept  in  good  condition  are  essential  for 

good  pruning  work. 
The  common  ax  and 
bucksaw  do  not  come 
under  this  head.  A 
good  saw,  light  and 
heavy  shears,  tree 
pruner  for  heading  in 
limbs,  ladder  and 
heavy  knife  are  all 
the  tools  actually  need- 
Fig.  10. — Methods  of  cutting,  a. — Split  ed  in  the  work.  The 
from  removal  of  limb  cut  from  above. 

b.— Proper  method  of  removing  limb,  common  two-edged  prun- 
ing saw  is  the  one  most 

often  used.  The  swivel  saw  is  much  handier,  however.  The 
heavy  long-handled  shears  often  take  the  place  of  the  saw,  but 
unless  the  pruner  is  careful  in  handling  them  stubs  will  be  left 
on  the  tree. 

Forming  the  Apple  Tree. 
— Figure  13  shows  the  dif- 
ferent steps  in  formative 
pruning,  starting,  as  is  done 
in  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, with  the  one-year-old 
tree.  The  numeral  1  repre- 
sents a  tree  set;  la  shows 
it  cut  back  to  18  to  24  inch- 
es from  the  ground  and  the 
side  branches  cut  off.  This 
will  force  out  a  number  of 
side  buds  into  strong 
branches.  If  all  of  these 
are  allowed  to  remain  we 
have  a  tree  similar  to  .?  the 
second  year.  These  should 
be  thinned  to  three  or  four, 
as  shown  in  2a. 


Thprp   Fig-     11 — Handy    method    of    Heating 
grafting  wax  to  paint  wounds. 


Fig.  12. — Various  styles  of  pruning  tools. 


58 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


should  be  at  least  three  or  four  inches  between  each  branch  to 
prevent  the  development  of  crotches,  which  are  especially 
objectionable  in  apple  trees.  The  arrangement  around  the  trunk 
is  shown  in  figure  14;  a,  the  first  year's  growth;  b,  the  second 
year's  growth. 


/      it  -L          **.  3  2^ 

Fig.  13. — Forms  of  tree  before  and  after  pruning.  1  and  1a,  at  plant- 
ing time;  2  and  2a,  at  beginning  of  second  year;  3  and  3a,  begin- 
ning of  third  year. 

In  the  second  year  these  scaffold  branches  should  be  cut  back 
to  one-half  or  two-thirds  their  length  (figs.  13-2a  and  14-a).  This 
will  cause  two  or  three  strong  laterals  to  develop  from  near  the 
extremity  of  each  stub. 

With  the  third  season,  the  laterals  which  have  developed 
from  the  previous  season's  cutting  back  will  again  need  to  be 
headed  in  about  one-half  their  growth.  Shoots  which  are  growing 
inward,  and  those  tending  to  cross  or  rub,  should  be  removed  or 
corrected.  The  regulation  of  a  shoot  is  governed  by  the  position 
on  the  tree.  Note  the  designated  ones  and  the  position  of  the 
buds  in  figure  14,  and  the  suggestions  brought  out  in  figure  13, 
•?  and  Sa. 

How  to  Make  the  Cuts. — In  all  formative  pruning  the  cuts 
are  made  slanting  and  just  back  of  the  bud  which  has  been 
grown  on  the  proper  side  of  the  branch  to  throw  the  resulting 
shoot  in  the  desired  direction.  The  uppermost  bud  left  on  the 


PRUNING. 


59 


stub  usually  throws  the  strongest  branch.  In  many  instances  an 
atherwise  dormant  bud  can  be  found  to  throw  a  strong  shoot  to 
fill  up  an  open  space  in  the  top  by  cutting 
a  notch  in  the  main  branch  just  above  the 
bud  in  question. 

The  method  of  cutting  back  to  a  bud  is 
shown  in  figure  15;  a  and  6  are  cut  too  far 
above  the  bud  and  will  leave  an  excess  of 
dead  wood  to  be  pinched  off  or  covered  over 
by  the  growing  callous;  c  is  cut  too  close 
to  the  base  of  the  bud,  a  proceeding  that 
is  liable  to  cause  the  bud  to  be  killed  by 
drying:  d  shows  about  the  right  position 
for  making  the  cut.  Fig.  13,  1  and  la, 
show  a  properly  set  one-year-old  tree  and 
the  same  tree  pruned  to  start  the  "head 
about  18  inches  high;  in  2  this  tree  is 
shown  after  a  summer's  thrifty  growth, 
while  2a  shows  the  same  tree  pruned  to 
form  the  head;  3  suggests  the  growth  that 
might  result  the  ensuing  season  and  3a 
embodies  some  suggestions  for  cutting  back 
to  form  a  desirable  head. 
It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  that  pruning  is  best 
which  is  moderate.  The  severe  cutting  back  of  a  tree  once  or 
twice  in  its  life-time,  as  is  so  often  the  practice,  can  scarcely 
help  but  have  serious  results.  Pruning  should  be  done  yearly 
from  the  time  the  tree  is  set  until  it  is  mature;  it  will  then 
never  be  necessary  to  remove  any  great  amount  of  wood  at  one 
time. 

Espalier  or  Cordon. — The  espalier  method  of  training  and 
pruning  is  followed  in  Europe  very  largely  with  the  apple,  pear 
and  peach.  It  can  be  used  there  to  advantage  since  labor  is 
cheap  and  land  is  high  in  price.  In  America  skilled  labor  is  too 
expensive  to  use  on  this  work  and  with  our  abundance  of  land 
the  method  would  be  of  no  value  except  for  ornamental  purposes. 
Espalier  training  consists  of  forming  the  tree  into  various  gro- 
tesque shapes,  or  in  training  it  flat  along  the  side  of  a  building 


Fig.  14.— a,  Dia- 
gram s  h  o  w  i  ng 
limbs  of  tree  at 
beginning  of,  sec- 
ond y  e  a  r  *s 
growth;  b. 
branches  pruned 
before  third 
year's  growth 
starts. 


60 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


or  fence.     It  is  a  common  method  of  growing  the  pear  in  Eng- 
land on  the  south  side  of  buildings. 

Renewing  Old  Trees. — This  is  a  difficult 
matter  and  the  best  method  is  probably  to  cut 
out  the  trees  entirely  or  else  to  cut  back  the 
tops  in  winter  very  severely  and  train  the  new 
growth  the  same  as  young  trees  are  handled. 
If  the  varieties  are  not  good,  top-working  with 
better  varieties  may  often  be  done  to  advan- 
b  tage. 

Trimmings. — 'All  trimmings  from  the  or- 
chard should  be  burned  at  once  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  insects  or  disease  that  may  be  on 
them. 

QUESTIONS— CHAPTER   IV. 

1.  What    are   the    principal    reasons   for   prun- 
ing orchard  trees? 

2.  When  is  an  open  headed  tree  objectionable? 

3.  When  is  an  open  head  desirable? 

4.  When    should    the    work    of    pruning    com- 
mence?    How  severe  should  the  early  pruning  be? 

5.  Why    is    a    low    head    desirable?      How    far 
Fig.    15. — Methods  from  the  ground  should  it  be  to  the  first  branches? 

of    removing  6.     When   should  pruning  be  done? 

buds,     a   and   b,  7.     Describe  the  method  of  making  cuts  in  re- 

stubs    too    long;    moving  small  and  large  limbs. 

c,   cut  too  close  8.     What  is   the  danger  if  a  long  stub  is  left? 

to  bud;  d,  prop-  9.     Why  should  the  larger  wounds  be  painted? 

er      method     of         10.     What  tools  are  ordinarily  used  in  pruning? 
cutting.  11.     What    is    a    desirable    form    for    the    young 

tree? 

12.  How  may  the  growth  of  the  tree  be  influenced  by  pruning  to 
certain  buds? 

13.  How  may  old  trees  be  renewed? 


CHAPTER  V. 

ORCHARD   PROTECTION. 

Throughout  the  whole  life  of  fruit  plants  there  is  danger 
of  injury  from  a  variety  of  causes.  At  no  time  can  we  say  that 
our  fruit  plants  are  safe,  and  we  must  be  continually  on  the 
lookout  to  head  off  some  injury.  Among  the  more  common  of 
these  injuries  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  sunscald,  win- 
ter killing  of  the  twigs,  roots  and  fruit  buds;  injuries  from 
birds  and  live  stock,  from  wind,  rain  and  frost  in  the  growing 
season,  from  ice  on  the  branches  in  winter,  from  girdling  by 
mice  and  rabbits,  from  label  wires,  injuries  from  cultivation  and 
from  insects  and  diseases. 

Sunscald  is  the  name  given  to 
the  condition  of  the  bark  of  trees 
which  probably  comes  as  a  result 
of  exposure  to  the  sun  under  cer- 
tain peculiar  conditions.  Its  ef- 
fect is  usually  to  kill  the  bark  on 
the  south  and  southwest  sides  of 
the  tree;  later  on,  this  bark  peels 
off,  leaving  the  wood  exposed  which 
soon  decays  and  permanent  injuries 
result.  It  is  found  that  anything 
which  shades  the  trunk  will  pre 
vent  this,  hence  one  of  the  com- 
mon remedies  is  to  shade  the  trunk 
with  burlap,  corn  stalks  or  simi- 
sunscaid.  "  "  lar  material,  especially  during  the 

time  when  the  branches  are  not  protected  by  leaves.  Th^  en- 
couraging  of  branches  on  the  south  side  of  the  tree  to  protect 
the  trunk  from  the  sun,  and  the  inclining  of  the  trees  to  the 
southwest,  are  also  remedies. 

This  injury  is  most  liable  to  occur  during  severe  droughts 
and  in  the  early  spring  or  late  winter  before  growth  has  fairly 
started.  It  is  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  warm  sun  of  the 


Fig.16.— Apple  tree  injured  by 


V 


62 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


middle  of  the  day  starting  active  life  in  the  portion  of  the  trunk 
exposed  to  its  dir-ect  rays.  Later,  when  a  cold  spell  comes,  the 
protoplasm  is  destroyed  and  the  soluble  compounds  formed  by 
the  renewal  of  active  life  are  decomposed.  The  tre-es  most  liable 


Fig.  17. — Apple   trees  in   trial  orchard    protected   from  sunscald   by 
corn  stalks. 

to  this  injury  are  those  that  are  newly  set  and  weak,  those 
with  smooth  bark  such  as  Hard  Maple  and  Basswood,  those 
trees  with  the  trunks  inclining  to  the  northeast  and  those  on 
dry  land. 


ORCHARD  PROTECTION.  63 

The  philosophy  of  this  disease  should  come  in  for  more  than 
passing  notice.  It  is  well  known  that  one  branch  or  portion  of  a 
dormant  plant  may  start  into  growth  independent  of  the  con 
dition  of  the  rest  of  the  plant.  Thus  a  branch  from  a  grape  vine 


Fig.18. — Apple  tree  with  trunk  protected  by  boxing.  Such  treatment 
protects  from  sunscald,  from  severe  freezing,  and  from  cultiva- 
tion injuries. 

or  other  plant,  brought  through  an  opening  into  the  greenhouse 
in  winter,  will  soon  start  into  growth  while  the  rest  of  the  vine 
is  frozen  out  doors.  So  the  portion  of  the  trunk  of  an  apple 


64  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

tree  that  is  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  midday  sun  may 
start  into  growth  independently  of  the  rest  of  the  tree. 

Injuries  from  birds. — Birds  are  often 
very  injurious  by  eating  cherries,  raspber- 
ries and  some  other  fruits.  At  times  they 
become  so  exceedingly  injurious  that  it  may 
be  necessary  to  use  the  shot  gun,  but  as 
a  rule  the  birds  that  commit  these  depre- 
dations are  very  helpful  in  destroying  large 
numbers  of  injurious  insects  and  the  toll 
they  take  in  fruit  is  not  more  than  they  are 
justly  entitled  to.  The  Yellow-belly  Sap- 
sucker  is  a  bird  that  often  girdles  the  larg- 
er branches  of  our  choicest  trees.  He  should 
be  destroyed.  Partridges  and  perhaps 
quail  will  sometimes  eat  the  buds  of  our 
fruit  trees  in  winter.  They  may  be  kept  off 
by  giving  them  a  shock  of  grain  to  work  on 
instead. 

Injuries  to  trees  by  cattle. — In  remote 
sections  deer  will  browse  the  twigs  off  fruit 
trees  and  break  them  down.  Farm  stock  is 
also  occasionally  injurious  in  the  same  way. 

Fig.  19. —Bark  of  ap-  Reasonable   precautions  will   prevent  this.  • 
pie  tree  injured  by 
the     sap-sucker  Injuries  from  wind. — ^Vmd  often  causes 

be'lly^aKuckerr  much  inJury  to  trees  aeavily  loaded  with 
fruit  by  shaking  off  the  fruit  or  even  break- 
ing the  trees.  The  remedy  is  the  use  of  windbreaks,  the  support- 
ing of  branches  by  stakes  or  by  tying  one  branch  to  another 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  tree.  Attention  to  these  precau- 
tions will  often  prevent  serious  injury.  Young  trees  in  exposed 
places  are  often  injured  by  being  blown  about.  This  is  the  case 
for  the  first  year  with  trees  that  are  newly  set  and  especially 
those  that  are  set  out  in  autumn  and  not  properly  staked  or 
laid  down.  Such  trees  are  liable  to  be  blown  about  very  much  in 
windy  spring  weather  when  the  ground  is  soft,  and  the  tree  is 
then  easily  loosened  and  killed.  Autumn-set  trees  should  al- 
ways be  staked  if  they  are  large  enough  to  take  the  wind;  a 


ORCHARD  PROTECTION.  65 

pile  of  soil  about  a  foot  high  around  them  will  often  be  very 
helpful  in  holding  them  in  place.  In  staking,  the  method  of 
tying  the  tree  so  that  it  will  not  be  scraped  by  the  stake  is 
very  important.  It  would  be  better  not  to  use  stakes  at  all  than 
not  to  tie  the  tree  to  them  properly.  It  is  generally  Lest  to  tie 
trees  to  two  stakes,  using  one  on  each  opposite  side. 

Mice  and  rabbits.— Mice  and  rabbits  eat  the  bark  off  the 
trees  and  where  this  injury  is  not  more  than  three  or  four  inch- 
es wide  and  only  extends  around  a  portion  of  the  tree,  it  will 
often  heal  over  in  one  or  two  seasons.  But  it  will  be  greatly 
hastened  in  healing  by  covering  the  wound  with  grafting  wax  or, 
better  yet,  piling  up  the  soil  over  it  if  n-ear  the  ground.  When 
the  injury  extends  completely  around  the  tree  and  is  wide,  the 
tree  may  be  saved  by  setting  .some  cions  in  the  live  bark,  above 
and  below  the  wound,  which  will  carry  over  the  sap  until  the 
wound  is  covered.  In  such  a  case,  however,  the  wound 
should  be  entirely  covered  with  grafting  wax  or  clay  after  the 
cions  are  put  in. 

Cultivation  injuries. — Cultivation  is  frequently  done  in  such 
a  rough  way  that  it  results  in  serious  injuries.  These  can  be 
largely  prevented  by  the  use  of  narrower  singletrees  and  by 
protecting  the  ends  with  leather,  or,  better  yet,  using  leather 
traces  that  go  completely  around  the  end  of  the  singletree,  so 
that  when  a  tree  is  struck  it  is  not  injured.  The  best  way  of 
treating  wounds  of  this  kind  is  by  cov-ering  them  with  grafting 
wax  or  grafting  clay  and  then  covering  the  whole  with  burlap. 

Root  galls  result  from  the  presence  of  low  forms  of  life 
known  as  Nematodes  and  possibly  also  from  a  bacterial  disease. 
Their  life  history  is  not  well  known.  They  are  often  exceedingly 
injurious  but  some  of  them  do  little  harm.  Prevention  is  bet- 
ter than  cure  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  refuse  to  receive  nursery 
stock  having  such  blemishes.  They  are  sometimes  prevented 
by  using  stocks  that  are  resistant  to  such  injuries. 

Winter  killing  may  be  confined  to  the  twigs  and  roots  or 
flower  buds  of  fruit  trees.  Any  of  these  injuries  may  occur  in 
deep  valleys,  when  comparative  immunity  is  secured  on  the 
higher  land. 

Winter  injury  to  twigs  and  trunks.— This  is  due  to  the  use  of 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


Fig.20. — Twigs  of  young  cherry  trees  that 
have  been  pulled  out  by  settling  of  snow 
crust  which  had  piled  in  over  them. 


varieties  too  tender  for 
the  locality  and  the 
most  successful  remedy 
is  to  secure  hardier 
sorts  if  possible.  But 
this  is  not  always  possi- 
ble and  the  varieties 
grown  may  be  most 
profitable  if  the  trunk 
is  protected  in  winter. 
Thus,  in  northern  Min- 
nesota the  best  authori- 
ties recomm-end  that 
the  trunks  of  young  ap- 
ple trees  be  surrounded 
with  a  box  six  inches 
square  up  to  the  branch- 
es and  that  the  same 
be  filled  with  soil 
to  furnish  protection  against  winter  injury.  It  is  well  known 
that  even  though  the  smaller  branches  may  be  seriously  injur- 
ed in  the  winter,  they  stand  a  good  chance  of  recovering,  pro- 
viding the  trunk  is  vigorous  and  uninjured.  Such  protection 
also  prevents  scald,  injuries  from  mice  and  other  animals. 
In  Florida  some  of  the  orange  growers  protect  their  tree  trunks 
by  piling  up  the  soil  about  them  as  far  as  the  branches. 

Winter  Injury  to  the  buds  of  fruit  trees. — This  is  a  common 
source  of  loss  to  growers  of  cherries  and  peaches  at  the  North. 
The  fruit  buds  of  these  trees  are  liable  to  start  a  little  in  warm 
winter  days  and  then  to  be  killed  by  a  low  temperature,  al- 
though the  leaf  buds  may  not  be  injured  at  all.  Various  reme- 
dies have  been  tried  for  this,  among  the  most  successful  of 
which  is  the  bending  of  the  trees  to  the  ground  in  autumn  and 
covering  with  corn  stalks.  The  tops  are  sometimes  tied  to- 
gether and  covered  with  corn  stalks  or  matting  in  winter.  Ex- 
periments have  also  been  made  in  covering  the  trees  with  va- 
rious paint  compounds  for  the  purpose  of  giving  an  -extra  cover- 
ing to  the  buds,  but  without  good  results.  One  of  the  most 


ORCHARD  PROTECTION. 


67 


ingenious  ways  of  furnishing  protection  to  peach  buds  has 
been  tried  by  Prof.  Whitten  of  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station 
who  worked  on  the  well  known  principle  that  dark  colors  absorb 


Fig.  21. — Protection  of  young  trees  .  a. — Trunk  protected  by  wooden 
box.  b. — Trunk  protected  by  lath  screen,  c. — Trunk  protected 
against  mice  by  mound  of  earth. 

more  heat  than  the  lighter  ones.  He  found  that  light  colored 
peach  twigs  were  slower  about  starting  into  growth  and  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  spraying  peach  trees  with  lime  wash  to  pre- 
vent their  starting  on  mild  days  in  winter.  He  claims  to  have 
been  very  successful  in  this  practice. 

The  roots  of  fruit  trees  may  be  seriously  injured  in  winter. — 
This  may  result  from  the  use  of  a  root  stock  too  tender  for 
the  section  in  which  the  tree  is  grown.  For  instance,  in  Iowa, 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota  and  Minnesota  the  best  root  to  use 
for  the  plum  is  the  Prunus  americana,  but  when  they  are  scarce 
the  nurserymen  there  often  use  the  Mariana,  Myrobalan  or  even 


GS 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


the  peach  for  stocks.  The  plum  takes  well  on  these  and  they 
are  commonly  used  in  milder  sections,  but  with  such  roots,  trees 
are  often  injured  or  killed  out  entirely  in  severe  winters  in  those 
sections.  The  same  is  true  of  some  other  trees.  It  is  important 
to  have  them  on  hardy  roots  in  order  to  prev-ent  root  killing. 


•vtos^r  -r**r7r-r~ 

Fig.  22. — Tree  gnawed   by   mice   and   the   wounds    bridged   over   with 
cions. 


Heavy  mulching  about  the  roots  of  trees  that  are  on  tender 
roots  will  often  make  them  safe  against  winter  injury.  Deep 
planting  of  trees  on  tender  roots  bring  the  roots  deep  in  the 
ground  where  they  are  not  injured  and  the  cion  above  will 
generally  send  out  hardy  roots.  As  stated  above,  it  is  not  un- 
common to  have  the  tender  stocks  on  which  trees  are  worked 
killed  out,  and  if  the  cion  has  rooted  the  effect  is  seen  in  a 
weakened  growth  until  a  new  root  system  has  formed.  If  there 
are  no  roots  from  the  cion  the  tree  dies. 

Protection  from  frost. — Freezing  affects  different  plants  in 
various  ways.    We  can  therefore  divide  plants  into  two  classes: 

(a)  Frost  tender  plants,  such  as  the  asparagus,  ash,  oak, 
spruce  and  various  other  plants  whose  young  foliage  is  easily 
injured  by  severe  frosts. 

(b)  Frost  hardy  plants,  such  as  the  apple,  peach,  wiiiow, 
poplar  and  birch  whose  foliage  is  not  destroyed  by  even  a  se- 
vere frost. 

The  flowers  of  many  plants  will  stand  a  severe  freeze  with- 
out injury  providing  they  are  not  open  when  it  occurs.    This  is 


ORCHARD  PROTECTION.  69 

the  case  with  the  apple,  pear,  strawberry  and  most  cultivated 
northern  fruits. 

We  also  have  fruit  plants  like  that  of  the  Buffalo  Berry 
and  Juneberry  whose  flowers  are  seldom  injured  by  severe  frosts, 
even  if  fully  expanded  at  the  time  it  occurs. 

The  pistils  are  the  parts  of  flowers  most  easily  injured. — 
Thus,  in  the  strawberry,  after  a  severe  frost  in  flowering  time, 
we  will  often  find  the  pistils  ruined  but  the  stamens  apparently 
uninjured. 

When  injurious  frosts  are  most  likely  to  occur. — Injurious 
frosts  are  most  likely  to  occur  in  places  where  the  air  is  still, 
especially  in  low  spots  where  the  air  is  not  only  still  but  where 
the  cold  air  from  the  surrounding  elevations  drains  in.  If  the 
air  moves  rapidly,  the  warm  air  is  mixed  with  the  cold  air  and 
does  not  separate.  Such  frosty  places  are  evident  at  the  time 
of  the  first  severe  autumn  frosts,  especially  if  this  comes  early. 
It  will  then  be  seen  that  the  frosty  air  fills  certain  hollows,  as 
water  might  fill  it.  In  such  places,  often  called  warm  sheltered 
nooks,  winter  killing  is  frequently  serious.  A  windbreak  may 
also  make  a  frost  pocket  on  the  side  hill  by  interfering  with 
the  free  circulation  of  the  air. 

The  locations  where  injurious  frosts  are  least  likely  to  oc- 
cur and  hence  afford  the  best  location  for  fruit  growing  are  high 
elevations  tipping  to  the  north  or  east  where  growth  is  rather 
backward  in  spring.  Other  locations  that  are  comparatively 
exempt  from  injurious  frosts  are  such  as  are  near  lakes  or 
streams  which  tend  to  produce  an  equable  climate. 

Foretelling  of  frosts. — Frosts  may  be  foretold  some  hours 
in  advance  by  means  of  the  wet  and  dry-bulb  thermometers, 
the  readings  of  which  are  compared.  The  difference  between 
the  readings  is  due  to  the  evaporation  from  the  wet  bulb  ther- 
mometer which  produces  a  degree  of  cold  in  a  direct  ratio  ac- 
cording to  the  dryness  of  the  air.  If  the  air  is  very  dry,  the 
wet  bulb  thermometer  may  record  ten  or  fifteen  degrees  lower 
than  the  dry  bulb.  If  the  air  is  saturated  with  moisture  they 
will  read  exactly  alike.  The  basis  for  the  calculation  is  the 
fact  that  we  seldom  have  injurious  early  autumn  or  late  spring 
frosts  after  the  dew  begins  to  fall.  By  referring  the  difference 


?0  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

between  the  readings  of  the  two  thermometers  to  a  table,  the 
dew  point  may  be  determined  and  if  it  is  several  degrees  above 
the  freezing  point,  no  injurious  frost  need  be  expected. 

*"T"~^  ~^^e  psychrometer  is  an  instrument  made  up 

Jr • — L^     of  a  wet   and  dry-bulb  thermometer  attached  to 

a  board  or  frame  for  determining  the  humidity 
L  of  the  air.    One  adapted  for  this  purpose  may  be 

purchased  at  a  reasonable  price  from  instrument 
dealers  or  it  may  be  made  as*  follows:  For  the 
frame,  take  a  board  eighteen  inches  long,  two 
inches  wide  and  one-half  inch  thick  with  a  hole 
bored  in  one  end  to  hang  the  apparatus  up  with 
wh-en  not  in  use.  Get  two  all-glass  thermometers 
with  cylinder  bulbs  and  the  degrees  Fahrenheit 
engraved  on  the  stem.  Cover  the  bulb  of  one 
thermometer  with  a  thin  piece  of  cotton  cloth, 
fastening  it  securely  by  a  thread.  When  the 

f  cloth  covering  is  wet  with  water  and  exposed  to 

evaporation  in  the  air  it  constitutes  the  wet 
bulb  thermometer;  the  other  thermometer  has 
no  covering  on  its  bulb,  is  not  wet  at  any  time 
and  constitutes  the  dry  bulb  thermometer. 

Fi    23— Psc  ro  The  followinS  extract  from  Bulletin  No.  23 

meter  forbore-  of   the   Weather   Bureau,   U.    S.   Department   of 
telling  frosts.    Agriculture,  entitled  "Frost,"  explains  the  meth- 
od of  using  a  psychrometer  to  foretell  frost. 

To  make  an  observation. — The  bulb  of  the  so-called  wet  bulb 
thermometer  is  thoroughly  saturated  with  water  by  soaking  it 
in  a  small  cup  or  wide  mouthed  bottle  until  the  covering  is 
thoroughly  wet.  The  thermometers  are  then  whirled  rapidly 
for  fifteen  or  twenty  seconds,  stopped  and  quickly  read.  A 
mental  note  of  the  reading  is  made  when  they  are  again  whirled 
and  read.  Subtract  the  reading  of  the  wet  thermometer  from 
that  of  the  dry.  Find  this  difference  in  the  column  at  the 
side  of  the  following  dew  point  table.  Follow  the  horizontal 
line  under  this  figure  until  it  intersects  the  column  under  the 
reading  of  the  dry  bulb  thermometer  at  the  top  of  the  column 
to  the  right.  The  number  at  the  intersection  is  the  dew  point 


ORCHARD  PROTECTION.  71 

reading.  If  this  comes  above  thirty-two  degrees  there  Is  no 
danger  of  a  frost,  but  if  below  there  is  danger,  although  frost 
may  not  occur  owing  to  wind,  clouds  or  other  phenomena. 

DEW-POINT  TABLE. 


Difference  of 
reading  of  dry      Temperature  of  Air  In  Degrees 
and  wet  bulbs.          15  20  25  30  35  40  45  50 

(Fahrenheit). 
55  60  65  70 

1  

.  11  16  22 

27 
24 
21 
17 
13 
7 
1 

32 
30 
27 
24 
20 
16 
11 
6 

38 
35 
33 
30 
27 
24 
20 
16 
11 
4 

43 
41 
39 

30 

27 
24 
20 
16 
11 
4 

48 
46 
44 
42 
40 
37 
34 
31 
28 
25 
21 
17 
11 
5 

53 

52 
50 
48 
46 
43 
41 
39 
36 
33 
30 
27 
23 
18 
12 

58 
57 
55 
53 
51 
49 
47 
45 
43 
40 
38 
35 
32 
28 
24 

63 
62 
60 
59 
57 
55 
53 
51 
49 
47 
45 
42 
40 
37 
34 

69 
67 
66 
64 
62 
61 
59 
57 
55 
53 
51 
49 
47 
45 
42 

2  
3 

6  12  18 

7  14 

4 

1  10 

5  

4 

6 

7 

8  
g 

10 

11  . 

12 

13    

14 

15  . 

First    Example. 
Dry  bulb  thermometer   ....................  ,  .......    60  degrees 

Wet  bulb  thermometer  ......................  .  .....   47  degrees 

Difference    ..............................  .  .....    13  degrees 

Dew  point  from  table    ............................    32  degrees 

Probably  no  frost. 

Second  Example. 
Dry  bulb  thermometer   ............................   47  degrees 

Wet  bulb  thermometer    ............................  39  degrees 

Difference    ....................................      8  degrees 

Dew  point  from  table,  between  24°  and  31°  or  27  degrees 
Probably  a  severe  frost. 

Protection  from  injurious  spring  and  autumn  frosts  may  be 
given  in  various  ways  according  to  circumstances: 

(a)  By  covering  up  the  whole  plant  and  thus  retarding  its 
period  of  bloom  until  danger  of  frost  is  past,  as  may  be  done 
with  strawberries  and  other  small  fruit.  For  this  purpose  they 
may  be  covered  with  earth  or  mulch.  Peach  trees  are  some- 
times covered  with  corn  stalks  or  hay  to  retard  flowering.  They 


72  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

may  also  be  laid  on  the  ground  and  successfully  carried  through 
the  winter  when  covered  with  corn  stalks. 

(b)  By  smudges  which  make  a  cloud  of  smoke  over  the 
land   and   thus   prevent  evaporation.    This    is    effective    when 
there  is  sufficient  wind  to  spread  the  smoke.     The  material  used 
for  this  purpose  is  wet  straw,  tar,  resin,  etc.,  or  a  combination 
of  such  material.    It  may  be  carried  about  the  orchard  on  a  stone 
boat  or  the  smudges  may  be  located  in  various  places. 

(c)  By  heating  the  air  directly  by  means  of  fires,  as  Is 
done  in  parts  of  Florida  where  wood  is  piled  ready  to  be  set 
on.  fire  whenever  frost  threatens. 

(d)  By  cultivating  the  land;    moist  soil  is  exposed,  which 
furnishes  considerable  protection  by  the  evaporation  of  the  mois- 
ture from  the  freshly  exposed  soil. 

(e)  By  spraying  the  plants;  the  air  is  brought  near  to  dew 
point  and  also  warmed.    In  order  to  make  this  effective  the 
spraying  must  be  repeated  during  the  night  when  frost  is  ex- 
pected. 

(f)  By  irrigating  the  land:  the  air  is  brought  near  to  dew 
point  and   it  is  also  warmed.    This  is  frequently  resorted  to 
in  the  case  of  cranberries. 

(g)  By  covering  with  tents,  as  practiced  in  Florida  and 
other  places  and  even  by  using  stoves  in  tents. 

(h)  Covering  the  flowers  with  straw  mulch  at  night  is 
practicable  in  the  case  of  strawberries.  Where  the  mulch  is 
kept  between  the  rows  to  protect  the  fruit  from  dirt,  it  may  be 
thrown  over  the  plants  when  frost  threatens  the  flowers.  If 
the  weather  continues  cold,  it  may  remain  on  the  plants  for  a 
few  days  without  injury,  otherwise  it  should  be  promptly  re- 
moved. 

Protection  against  frost. — In  the  Yearbook  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1907,  G.  H.  Powell  has  the 
following  to  say  in  regard  to  frost  protection  in  California,  which 
is  of  very  general  application: 

"There  are  few  districts  in  the  citrus  belt  of  California  that 
may  not  be  visited  by  frost  in  December,  January,  or  February. 
The  prevention  of  injury  by  frost  may  be  influenced  to  a  large 
extent  by  the  location  of  groves  on  lands  over  which  there  is 
a  sufficient  air  drainage.  The  new  groves  established  during 


ORCHARD  PROTECTION.  73 

the  past  fev  years  have  been  located  on  the  higher  lands  with 
this  factor  prominently  in  view.  To  protect  them  against  the 
extreme  cold,  many  of  the  groves  on  the  lower  lands  are  equip- 
ped with  wicker  coal  baskets,  briquets  of  shavings,  crude  oil, 
and  asphaltum,  or  sheet-iron  stoves  in  which  the  same  material 
is  burned.  Oil  smudges  (in  tin  receptacles)  or  other  materials, 
which  are  located  at  definite  intervals  in  the  spaces  between 
the  trees,  are  sometimes  burned.  It  is  a  common  practice,  also, 
to  run  the  water  in  the  irrigation  furrows  between  the  trees  on 
cold  nights,  in  order  to  make  use  of  the  latent  heat  in  the  water 


Fig-.   24. — Form   of  smudger  for   use   in    protecting  orchards   from 
frosts.     It  is  used  with  a  protected  stone  boat. 

as  a  means  of  frost  protection.  The  materials  employed  in  this 
protection  against  frost  injury  are  used  to  cause  a  circulation 
of  air  over  the  grove  in  order  to  mix  together  the  strata  of  differ- 
ent temperatures  or  for  the  production  of  a  cloud  of  smoke  over 
the  grove  in  the  morning  in  order  to  exclude  the  direct  sunlight 
and  thereby  prevent  the  rapid  thawing  of  the  fruit  when  it  has 
been  frozen  during  the  preceding  night.  It  is  the  rapid  thawing, 
rather  than  the  freezing,  of  the  tissues,  that  causes  most  of 
the  injury  to  citrus  fruits  that  have  been  subjected  to  ordinary 
frost  temperatures. 


74  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

"A  general  idea  of  the  operation  of  frost  fighting  may  be 
gained  from  a  brief  description  of  the  work  observed  in  a  grove 
on  a  cold  night.  There  were  twenty-five  perforated  sheet-iron 
stov-es  scattered  over  each  acre  of  grove,  one  stove  being  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  square  between  four  trees.  These  stoves 
were  filled  with  a  prepared  mixture  of  shavings,  asphaltum,  and 
crude  oil.  When  it  was  determined  to  light  the  fires  a  force  of 
men  appeared,  each  one  carrying  a  can  of  oil  and  a  torch.  A 
small  quantity  of  oil  was  poured  over  the  smudging  material 
and  was  then  quickly  lighted  with  the  torch.  As  soon  as  all 
the  fires  were  burning,  the  men  returned  home,  except  one  man 
to  about  5  acres,  who  kept  the  fires  replenished  and  in  good, 
burning  condition. 

"Just  how  much  benefit  is  derived  from  these  various  devices 
it  is  difficult  to  estimate,  as  the  experience  of  the  growers  is 
conflicting  and  the  experiments  that  have  been  conducted  have 
not  always  been  comprehensive.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt, 
however,  that  the  judicious  use  of  the  various  devices  used  in 
frost  protection  has  been  of  great  commercial  value.  One  who 
has  had  an  experience  of  many  years  and  who  has  large  finan- 
cial interests  involved  writes: 

"  'We  have  been  able  to  protect  against  the  severest  cold 
we  have  had  since  we  secured  the  coal  baskets.  Several  times 
the  temperature  has  been  around  24'  or  25°  until  we  got  our  coal 
baskets  under  way,  but  we  were  usually  able  to  make  a  change  of 
from  3°  to  5°  when  our  baskets  were  lighted  and  were  giving  off 
a  good  heat.' 

"Aside  from  the  injury  to  the  fruit  and  the  young  wood  by 
frost,  continued  cold  weather  causes  the  wood  of  the  lemon 
trees  to  mature  and  the  fruit  to  develop  a  coarse,  rough  texture 
and  to  ripen  prematurely." 


QUESTIONS — CHAPTER    V. 

1.  What  Is  sunscald  and  how  can  It  be  prevented? 

2.  What  injuries  to  trees  are  caused  by  birds?    By  cattle'    Ey 
wind?    By  mice  and  rabbits?    By  cultivation? 

3.  What  are  root  galls? 

4.  What  effect  does  winter  injury    have  upon  orchard  trees? 

5.  How   may   twigs,    trunks,    roots   and  buds   be   protected   from 
winter  injury? 

6.  Into   what    classes   may   plants   be    divided,    considering   their 
susceptibility  to  frosts? 

7.  When  are  injurious  frosts  most  likely  to  occur? 

8.  By  what  means  can  frosts  be  foretold?    Explain  each. 
8.    In  what  ways  may  trees  be  protected  from  frosts  * 


CHAPTER  VI. 

INSECTS   INJURIOUS  TO   FRUITS. 

The  work  of  the  fruit  grower  is  not  only  one  of  tillage,  prun- 
ing and  fertilizing  the  crop,  but  he  must  be  ever  on  the  watch  to 
ward  off  or  kill  the  insects  and  diseases  that  injure  or  destroy 
his  crop.  None  of  these  treatments  can  be  neglected  with  im- 
punity, yet  if  the  crop  has  good  cultivation  and  manuring  it 
will  overcome  insect  injuries  and  adverse  conditions  much  bet- 
ter than  if  neglected.  However,  spraying  will  not  take  the  place 
of  manuring,  nor  manuring  of  spraying. 

The  great  growth  and  wide  specializing  in  fruit  growing 
has  led  to  the  increase  of  troublesome  pests.  In  some  sections 
where  the  natural  food  of  the  native  insects  has  been  destroyed 
by  cleaning  the  land,  they  have  attacked  the  introduced  plants. 
Then,  too,  new  and  exceedingly  injurious  insects  and  diseases 
have  been  introduced  from  other  countries  and  have  spread 
rapidly  within  recent  years  and  these  often  need  extremely  dras- 
tic measures  for  their  prevention.  Good  illustrations  of  the 
latter  are  peach  yellows  and  root  galls  among  diseases,  and 
San  Jose  scale,  Gypsy  and  Brown  Tail  moths  among  insects. 
By  the  introduction  of  insects  and  diseases  some  of  the  old 
standard  varieties  have  been  driven  out  of  cultivation,  even 
in  sections  where  they  formerly  grew,  or  else  can  now  only 
be  grown  when  they  are  given  much  more  care  than  was  former- 
ly necessary.  The  presence  of  these  pests  and  the  discovery  of 
methods  of  checking  their  injuries  has  worked  for  the  interests 
of  the  careful,  painstaking  grower  who  now  has  a  decided  ad- 
vantage over  the  slovenly  cultivator.  In  other  words,  it  takes 
more  brains  and  application  to  raise  fruit  now  than  formerly. 

Comparative  exemption  from  pests  is  often  the  case  in  new 
fruit  areas  but  this  exemption  seldom  lasts  more  than  a  few 
years,  as  is  shown  by  the  history  of  the  new  fruit  areas  in  the 
Pacific  Coast  states  where  exceptional  immunity  from  insect 
pests  was  enjoyed  for  many  years,  which  might  have  been 
continued  indefinitely  had  there  been  a  suitable  inspection  law 


76  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

properly  enforced.  The  codlin  moth  and  the  plum  curculio  and 
other  insect  pests  have  come  in  and  are  now  extremely  trouble- 
some and  much  care  is  required  to  hold  them  in  check. 

State  Inspection. — Much  has  been  said  in  favor  of  and  against 
State  Inspection  laws  for  the  prevention  and  suppression  of 
insects  and  diseases.  They  have  accomplished  much  good  in 
some  sections  although  they  have  been  unquestionably  used  at 
times  to  restrict  trade  between  the  states.  One  of  the  great- 
est things  that  they  have  accomplished  has  been  to  cause  peo- 
ple to  think  about  insect  pests  and  diseases  and  to  impress  upon 
them  the  importance  of  subduing  them. 

Laws  for  the  suppression  of  noxious  insects  and  diseases 
vary  much  in  the  different  states  but  there  is  a  tendency  today 
for  all  the  states  to  bring  their  laws  to  the  same  standard. 
These  laws  generally  provide  for  the  appointment  of  a  state 
entomologist  who  is  required  to  inspect  all  nurseries  in  his 
state  and  to  furnish  a  suitable  certificate  if  he  finds  them  worthy. 
There  is  also  a  rule  providing  that  no  nursery  stock  shall  be 
shipped  from  one  state  to  another  without  a  copy  of  this,  or  a 
similar  certificate,  being  attached  to  the  parcel  containing  it 
and  that  badly  infested  nurseries  and  orchards  must  be  prop- 
erly treated.  Suitable  penalties  are  provided  for  those  avoid- 
ing the  provisions  of  the  law.  In  a  few  of  the  states  and  Canada 
the  law  requires  that  all  nursery  stock  must  be  fumigated  at 
the  destination  before  its  delivery  to  consignee.  It  would  be 
hard  to  say  now  just  what  is  a  fair  law  for  all  concerned,  and  it 
ought  perhaps  to  vary  in  different  sections  of  the  country  ac- 
cording to  crops  and  climate.  A  national  law  is  needed  to 
regulate  interstate  commerce  in  nursery  stock,  fruit  and  other 
products  that  might  carry  noxious  insects  and  diseases  from 
one  state  to  another.  The  intelligent  fruit  grower  should  be 
familiar  with  the  life  habits  of  the  insects  in  which  he  is  most 
interested  and  should  not  work  blindly  by  "Rule  of  Thumb." 

Insects. — Noxious  insects  are  held  in  check  in  various  ways 
and  from  this  standpoint  we  conveniently  class  them  in  groups: 

Chewing  insects. — Examples  of  these  are  grasshoppers,  cat- 
erpillars, beetles  and  their  grubs,  etc.  These  are  quite  easily 
reached  by  arsenical  and  other  poisons  which  may  be  placed 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  77 

on  their  food.  The  great  problem  in  dealing  with  this  class  is 
to  find  something  which  will  hold  the  poison  on  the  leaves  for 
a  reasonable  length  of  time  and  will  at  the  same  time  prevent 
the  arsenical  poisons  from  burning  the  leaves.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  plants  belonging  to  the  plum  family,  including 
plums,  peaches  and  apricots,  which  are  easily  injured  by  ar- 
senious  acid  even  when  present  in  such  small  quantities  that  it 
would  not  be  injurious  to  the  foliage  of  apple,  pear,  currant  or 
gooseberry.  This  burning  is  especially  bad  when  its  application 
is  followed  by  several  days  of  bright,  dry  weather.  Another 
Important  problem  which  we  have  not  solved  is  how  to  apply 
these  poisons  so  that  they  will  not  wash  off  from  the  leaves. 
Among  the  insecticides  commonly  used  for  this  class  of  insects 
are  Paris  Green,  arsenate  of  lead  and  hellebore.  Some  of  the 
chewing  insects  may  be  destroyed  by  the  acrid  or  oily  applica- 
tions which  are  commonly  used  for  the  destruction  of  sucking 
insects,  such  as  tobacco  water  and  kerosene  emulsion. 

Insects  that  work  In  the  wood  of  the  tree  belong  to  the  class 
of  chewing  insects.  These  vary  in  their  habits  and  nearly  as 
various  are  the  remedies  used  against  them;  each  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  light  of  its  life  history.  When  borers  are  in 
their  holes  and  can  be  reached  easily  by  gas  fumes,  perhaps  as 
satisfactory  a  remedy  as  any  is  to  squirt  a  small  amount  of 
carbon  bisulfide  into  their  holes  with  a  common  oil  dropper 
and  stop  up  the  holes  with  a  little  putty.  In  the  case  of  borers 
that  tunnel  just  under  the  bark,  the  location  of  which  can  be 
seen  by  the  discoloration  of  the  surface  bark  (as  with  the  borer 
of  the  peach),  the  best  remedy  is  probably  to  look  over  the 
trees  in  the  early  spring  and  again  in  the  late  summer  and  dig 
them  out  with  a  sharp  knife. 

Sucking  Insects — Examples  of  this  class  of  insects  are  plant 
lice,  scale  insects  and  chinch  bugs.  These  do  not  chew,  but 
their  food  is  the  juice  of  plants.  They  obtain  it  by  sucking. 
As  they  do  not  bite  they  cannot  be  destroyed  by  internal  poisons, 
such  as  arsenic  and  hellebore,  but  they  must  be  reached  by 
something  that  will  affect  their  respiratory  organs.  All  such  in- 
sects breathe  through  small  pores  in  their  sides  and  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  a  covering  of  a  film  of  oil  or  soap  (whale-oil  soap 


78  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

and  kerosene  emulsion).  The  bodies  of  leaf  lice,  which  form 
a  considerable  portion  of  this  class  of  insects,  are  covered  with 
a  thin  skin  and  are  injured  or  killed  by  astringent  solutions, 
such  as  tobacco  water,  and  also  by  hot  water.  Fumigating  with 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas  in  case  of  scale  or  other  sucking  insects 
is  a  good  remedy.  Fumigating  with  tobacco  smoke  will  kill  most 
kinds  of  leaf  lice.  In  fact,  it  would  seem  that  fumigation,  be- 
ing so  sure  a  remedy,  is  destined  to  be  more  largely  used  in  the 
future.  The  use  of  strong  compounds,  when  trees  are  dormant, 
for  the  destruction  of  scale  insects,  must  continue  to  gain  in 
popularity.  Among  the  best  of  the  compounds  used  for  this 
purpose  are  the  lime  and  sulfur  mixture  and  the  soluble  oil 
preparations. 

Insects  that  attach  themselves  to  roots  generally  are  of  the 
sucking  class  and  are  extr-emely  difficult  to  destroy.  Among 
the  worst  of  these  pests  is  the  woolly  aphis  or  root  louse  of  the 
apple,  and  the  phylloxera  or  root  louse  of  the  grape,  the  latter 
having  been  extremely  injurious  to  the  roots  of  the  European 
Wine  Grape  in  France.  In  the  case  of  the  woolly  aphis  the 
trouble  is  largely  avoided  by  planting  trees  that  are  known  to 
be  exempt  from  it.  If  the  trees  are  once  well  started  there  is 
little  danger  of  injury,  since  the  pest  is  seldom  harmful  to  large 
trees.  Fumigation  of  stock  insures  the  removal  of  the  root 
louse.  In  the  case  of  the  phylloxera  on  the  European  Wine 
Grape  the  only  satisfactory  remedy  has  been  to  graft  on  the 
roots  of  some  resistant  stock  such  as  the  American  Frost  Grape 
(Vitis  riparia).  So  common  has  this  practice  become  in  Europe 
that  the  result  is  the  European  wine  industry  stands  on  Ameri- 
can roots. 

Beneficial  insects. — In  a  state  of  nature,  each  species  of  the 
animal  kingdom  is  held  in  check  so  there  is  a  nicely  balanced 
relation  between  them,  but  occasionally  even  in  nature  some 
one  species  becomes  too  numerous  and  breaks  the  bounds  that 
are  ordinarily  strong  enough  to  hold  it.  Among  the  natural 
agencies  that  destroy  insects  may  be  mentioned  heavy  rains, 
sudden  changes  to  a  freezing  temperature,  winds,  predaceous  and 
parasitic  insects,  and  fungous  and  bacterial  diseases. 

Parasites. — A  most  important  factor  in  checking  the  spread 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  79 

of  Insects  is  th-e  numerous  parasites  to  which  they  are  sub- 
ject. These  may  be  either  animal  or  vegetable.  Any  one  who 
has  had  much  experience  in  gardening  may  have  seen  many 
instances  of  the  increase  of  animal  parasites  until  certain  kinds 
of  insects  were  no  longer  injurious.  This  is  common  in  the 
case  of  the  cabbage  worm,  the  tent  caterpillar,  grasshoppers 
and  many  others. 

Animal  Parasites. — The  most  common  of  animal  parasites 
that  destroy  insects  are  small  wasps  and  some  two-winged  flies 
which  deposit  their  eggs  in  or  on  the  -eggs  and  larvae  of  the  in- 
jurious insects  on  which  the  growing  wasps  feed.  These  destroy 
enormous  numbers  of  insects  and  should  be  regarded  as  among 
the  greatest  aids  to  the  fruit  grower. 

Among  vegetable  parasites  that  destroy  insects  may  be 
mentioned  the  diseases  which  destroy  the  chinch  bugs,  and 
which  the  states  of  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  Minnesota  attempted 
to  introduce  on  a  large  scale  for  the  subjugation  of  this  pest. 
Another  instance  is  the  disease  which  often  destroys  cabbage 
worms  and  even  house  flies.  A  good  illustration  of  this  oc- 
curred recently  in  the  experience  of  a  Minnesota  gardener.  He 
found  the  Cabbage  Plusia  getting  very  numerous  in  his  twenty 
acres  of  cabbages  and  got  a  spraying  outfit  to  kill  them  with, 
but  had  hardly  started  when  he  found  the  worms  dying  naturally, 
as  the  result  of  a  fungous  disease.  He  put  up  the  machine  and 
the  disease  successfully  did  the  work  for  him. 

Predaceous  insects  search  out  and  destroy  their  prey.  In 
this  class  of  insects  may  be  included  the  Preying  Mantis,  Tiger 
beetles,  ladybugs  and  some  wasps  and  dragon  flies. 

The  Cottony  Cushion  Scale  was  first  noticed  in  California 
in  1872  and  was  greatly  feared  on  account  of  its  spreading  so 
rapidly  and  protecting  itself  from  insecticides  by  excreting  a 
waxy  substance  which  completely  covered  the  insect.  The  pest 
was  finally  destroyed  by  a  lady  bird  (lady  bug)  imported  from 
Australia. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Apple. 

Affecting  the  Fruit: 

Codlin  Moth  fCarpocapsa  pomonella). — The  Codlin  Moth 
is  the  common  cause  of  wormy  apples  and  makes  the  infested 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


Fig.  25.  —Injury  caused  by  the  lar- 
va   of    the    Codlin    Moth. 


places  to  spin  their  cocoons 
nearby,  which  is  often  be- 
tween the  hoops  and  staves 
of  the  barrels  holding  the 
fruit. 

Remedies. — The  fallen  fruit 
should  be  promptly  gathered 
and  destroyed.  Keeping  hogs 
in  the  orchard  is  very  bene- 
ficial as  they  destroy  the 
worm-infested  fruit;  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that 
when  too  much  stock  is  pas- 
tured in  the  orchard  and  the 
grass  becomes  scarce,  they 
are  liable  to  bark  the  trees. 
If  bands  of  burlap,  or  even 
paper,  six  Inches  wide,  are 
fastened  around  the  trunks 


fruit  ripen  prematurely 
and  fall  to  the  ground. 
The  moths  deposit  their 
eggs  in  the  calyx  (or  eye) 
of  the  apple  just  as  the 
blossoms  fall.  On  hatch- 
ing, the  worm  eats  into 
the  fruit  where  it  lives 
until  it  is  ready  to  change 
to  the  moth  stage.  It 
then  leaves  the  fruit  and 
spins  a  cocoon  in  which 
it  undergoes  its  changes. 
There  are  two  or  more 
broods  in  a  season.  The 
worms  that  are  in  the 
late  apples  leave  them  in 
the  winter  and  find 


Pig.  26 — Flowers  of  the  apple; 
the  proper  stage  for  spraying 
to  control  Codlin  Moth. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


81 


not  later  than  the  first  of  June,  many  of  the  worms  and  chrysa- 
lides of  this  moth  will  be  found  under  them  and  may  be  easily 
destroyed.  The  bands  should  be  examined  about  once  in  ten  days 
until  the  last  of  August. 

The  most  common  way  of  protecting  against  this  insect  Is 
by  spraying  the  trees  just  after  the  blossoms  fall,  when  the  ap- 
ples still  stand  upright,  with  Paris  Green  and  water  at  the  rate 
of  one  pound  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  gallons.  When  the  trees 
are  sprayed  to  prevent  scab,  the  Paris  Green  may  be  added  to 
the  Bordeaux  mixture  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  gallons  of  the  mixture. 

Plum  and  Apple  Curculio. — These  are  snout  beetles  which  cut 

,       small    holes    in    the   fruit    as 

they  feed,  and  also*  use  the 
fruit  as  a  place  for  laying 
their  eggs.  The  latter  soon 
hatch  into  a  small  grub 
which,  at  maturity,  is  about 
one-half  inch  long.  The  spe- 
cial injury  to  the  fruit  from 
this  insect  comes  from  the 
hard  knots  that  form  where 
it  has  been  stung,  which 
makes  the  apple  gnarled  and 
of  poor  quality. 

Remedies. — These  insects 

breed  most1^  in  the  wild 
plums,  haws  and  wild  crab 

apples,  and  destroying  these  generally  results  in  lessen- 
ing the  damage  to  the  apples  in  their  vicinity.  The 
windfalls  should  be  destroyed,  and  pasturing  hogs  in  the  or- 
chard is  probably  the  easiest  way  to  accomplish  this.  Clean 
culture  has  proven  most  satisfactory  in  ridding  orchards  of  the 
curculio  as  they  winter  over  in  grass  and  rubbish.  Spraying  the 
fruit  with  Paris  Green,  lime  and  water,  as  recommended  for  the 
tent  caterpillar,  has  sometimes  proven  satisfactory. 

Affecting  the  foliage: 

Tent  Caterpillar  (Malacosoma  americana). — The  character- 
istics of  this  insect  are  readily  seen  In  Fig.  28,  which  shows  the 


Fig.  27. — Showing 
which  apples  are 
Plum  Curculio. 


the     way     in 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


caterpillars  resting  on  the  outside  of  the  tent-like  structure  in 
which  they  live,  and  also  a  twig  on  which  a  bunch  of  eggs  is 
fastened.  The  habit  of  this  insect  is  about  as  follows:  The 
eggs  are  laid  on  the  smaller  twigs  of  fruit  trees  in  ring-like 
clusters  during  the  first  two  weeks  in  July.  Two  or  three  hun- 
dred eggs  are  laid  in  each  cluster  and  they  are  firmly  cemented 
together.  These  hatch  out  early  in  the  spring  just  as  the  leaves 
open.  The  young  caterpillars  soon  commence  to  make  a  tent 
by  extending  sheets  of  silk  web  across  the  nearest  forks  of  the 
twigs  and  this  tent  or  nest  is  enlarged  as  more  room  is  needed.  It 
has  holes  in  it  through  which  the  caterpillars  enter  and  they  re- 

treat  to  the  nest 
at  night,  in  stormy 
weather  and  usual- 
ly when  not  feed- 
ing. They  gener- 
ally come  out  of 
their  nest  once  in 
the  morning  and 
once  in  the  after- 
noon to  feed.  They 
are  very  voracious 
and  soon  strip  the 
infested  tree  of 
its  foliage.  They 
change  to  moths  in 
June  and  soon  com- 
mence laying  eggs. 
The  eggs  of  the 
Western  Tent  cat- 
erpillar are  not 
laid  around  the 
twig  but  in  bunches 
on  the  sides  of  the  twigs. 

Remedies.— The  tents  are  readily  seen.  They  should  be 
gathered  and  destroyed  early  in  the  season  when  the  worms 
are  within  them.  The  egg  masses  are  also  easily  seen  against 
a  cloudy  sky  when  the  trees  are  leafless,  and  can  be  gathered 
and  destroyed  in  winter  or  at  any  time  before  they  hatch. 


Fig.  28.— Tent  Caterpillar.  a.— Web 
house  of  tent  caterpillar  much  reduced. 
Caterpillar  nearly  full  size.  b. — Eggs 
nearly  natural  size,  c.— Moth  natural 
size. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  83 

Fall  Web  Worm  (Hyphantria  cunea). — This  is  often  mis- 
taken for  the  Tent  Caterpillar  from  which  it  is  quite  distinct. 
It  appears  later  in  the  season,  generally  in  July  or  later.  Its 
webs  are  larger  and  loose  or  open  and  the  caterpillars  stay  in 
them  and  feed.  The  web  is  extended  to  include  other  foliage 
as  that  enclosed  is  eaten.  The  remedies  should  be  the  same  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Tent  Caterpillar. 

Leaf  Lice  or  Aphis  (Aphis  mali). — The  leaves  of  the  apple 
are  frequently  attacked  by  plant  lice  which,  by  sucking  the 
sap,  cause  the  leaves  to  curl  up  and  assume  a  very  unnatural 
appearance.  They  work  almost  entirely  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  leaf  and  are  most  abundant  on  the  new  and  tend-er  growth 
which  generally  becomes  distorted  as  a  result  of  such  attacks. 
^^^^^  Similar  lice  attack  the  foliage  of  the  plum, 

currant  and  other  plants.     The  eggs  are  laid 
ffi^  on  the  branches  of  apple,  plum  and  other 

!^a  trees  in  autumn.       They  are  yellowish  in 

^•jH    l^^v  color  when  first  laid,  but  become  a  glossy 

^^HnflK^      black  by  winter.    These  hatch  in  the  spring 
^K  and  locate  themselves  on  the  small,  young 

Wg|          HV     growth  and  feed  by  sucking  sap.    All  hatch- 
^L     ed  at  this  time  are  females  and  reach  ma- 
turity in  ten  or  twelve  days,  when  they  com- 
l^L     mence  to   give   birth  to  living  young,  pro- 
^S&ljfr     ducing   about   two   daily   for   two   or  three 
^^f         weeks,   when   they   die.       The   young   ones 
soon  commence  to  produce  live  young  and 
£&  their  increase  is  very  rapid,  in  fact  so  fast 

j&K  ^p  that  the  new  growth  is  kept  covered  with 

^pVf  them.    As   the    season   advances,    some   of 

Fjg       29 Eggs        the  lice  acquire  wings  and  found  new  colo- 

of  Plant  Lice  nies  on  other  trees.  On  the  approach  of 
young  apple  cold  weather  males  appear  and  the  season 
tree-  closes  with  a  stock  of  eggs  for  the  con- 

tinuation of  the  species. 

Remedies. — The  lice  should  be  destroyed  in  the  spring  be- 
fore they  become  numerous.  The  eggs  hatch  about  the  time  the 
buds  are  bursting,  and  as  soon  as  the  lice  appear,  they  should 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


be  sprayed  wth  strong  soapsuds,  kerosene  emulsion  or  tobacco 
water.  If  the  lice  are  allowed  to  get  very  numerous  before 
spraying  is  commenced,  the  work  will  have  to  be  repeated  sev- 
eral times.  Where  trees  are  heavily  infested,  smoking  may  be 
the  most  desirable  treatment.  (See  reference  to  this  under  the 
head  of  Insects  Injurious  to  the  Plum.) 

Climbing   Cut   Worms   (Agrotis   sp.) — When   the   foliage   or 
buds  are  being  destroyed  without  any  apparent  cause,  climbing 
cut  worms  should  be  searched  for.     If  present  they  will  be  found 
in  the  day-time  buried  in  the  ground  near  the  base  of  the  trees 
and  occasionally  do  much  damage.    They  are  closely  allied  to 
and  resemble  the  common  cut  worms  so  well  known  to  gardeners. 
Remedies. — They  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  foliage 
as  recommended  for  the  Tent  Caterpillar  and  by  jarring   the 
trees  after  dark  and  then  gathering  the  worms. 
Insects  Attacking  Trunks  and  Branches. 
Flat  Headed  Apple  Tree   Borer  (ChrysobotJiris  femorata). — 
This  borer  is  quite  abundant  in  some  sections  but  generally  does 
not  cause  serious  losses  here.    It  prefers 
to  work  in  trees  that  are  newly  trans- 
planted,  or   weakened  by  some   disease, 
making  its  borings  in  the  trunks  and  larg- 
er branches  and  often  completely  girdling 
them.    It  is  the  larva  of  a  beetle  that  is 
oblong,  flattish  in  form  and  of  a  shining 
greenish-black  color  about  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  long.  The  beetles  emerge  from 
the    borings    in    the   trees   in   the   early 
summer.    They   are   very  active   in   the 
middle  of  warm  days  and  may  be  found 
in  the  hot  sunshine  running  up  and  down 
the  trunk  of  the  tree,  whence  they  fly 
quickly  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  catch 
them.    They  lay   their  eggs,  which  are 
yellow,  under  loose  scales  on  the  bark  or 
in  cracks  and  crevices.    The  young  soon  hatch  and  eat  their 
way  through  the  bark,  feeding  on  the  sap  wood.    As  the  borer 
approaches  maturity,  it  usually  bores  into  the  more  solid  wood 


Fig.  30.— Flat  head- 
ed Apple  Tree 
Borer,  a. — Borer 
full  grown,  b. — 
Pupa.  c. — Reverse 
side  of  head,  d.— 
Mature  borer. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


85 


and  finally  out  to  the  bark  where  it  changes  into  the  beetle  form. 
This  insect  also  attacks  the  pear,  plum,  peach  and  cherry. 

Remedies. — All  trees  should  be  examined  early  in  autumn; 
If  there  are  borers  present,  they  may  be  detected  by  the  dry  ap- 
pearance of  th-e  bark  or  by  the  exudation  of  sap  or  sawdust-like 
castings.  When  such  signs  are  seen  the  parts  should  be  at 
once  cut  into  with  a  knife  and  the  borer  destroyed.  As  a  pre- 
ventive measure  there  is  perhaps  nothing  better  than  to  coat 
the  trunk  and  larger  branches  with  a  mixture  of  soft  soap  reduc- 
ed with  a  solution  of  washing 
soda  to  the  consistency  of  a 
thick  paint,  and  if  a  little  car- 
bolic acid  is  added,  it  will  be 
even  more  repulsive  to  the 
beetles.  This  should  be  kept  on 
the  trees  during  the  summer 
months  when  the  insect  is  in- 
jurious. 

Twig  Borer  (Amphicerus  bt- 
caudatus). — A  dark  colored,  cyl- 
indrical, small  beetle  that  bores 
into  the  twigs  of  the  apple,  grape 
and  some  other  fruits.  It  is 
seldom  extremely  injurious. 

Remedies. — The  remedy  is  to 
cut  out  in  early  summer  the  In- 
fested twigs  which  contain  th« 
borers  and  to  burn  them. 

Buffalo  Tree  Hopper  (Ceresa 
bubalus).— An  active,  jumping, 
ridiculous  looking  creature  about 
one-third  of  an  inch  long,  re- 
sembling a  beech  nut  more  than  any  insect.  Its  eggs  are  laid 
in  slits  cut  into  the  bark  of  apple  trees  by  the  female.  Their 
presence  seems  to  seriously  injure  the  adjoining  wood  and  bark 
and  causes  numerous  irregular  wounds  which  often  seriously 
check  growth  and  are  sometimes  taken  for  hail  injuries.  It 
feeds  on  the  foliage  when  young,  but  does  little  Injury  in  this 
stage. 


Fig.  31. — Buffalo  Tree  Hop- 
per; showing  scars  on  old 
wood  as  the  result  of  its 
injuries;  also  mature  in- 
sect. 


86  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Remedies. — The  best  treatment  is  to  prune  away  and  burn  the 
infested  wood  in  winter,  but  this  is  seldom  entirely  practicable 
and  we  have  largely  to  depend  on  natural  remedies  and  on  high 
cultivation  to  enable  the  plant  to  resist  the  pest. 

San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus). — This  is  perhaps 
the  most  insiduous  and  destructive  of  all  our  insect  pests.  In 
appearance,  it  is  nearly  circular,  about  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  in  diameter,  dark  brown  in  col- 
or, with  a  darker  spot  in  the  center.  It  lives  on 
the  bark  of  nearly  all  of  our  garden  and  lawn  plants. 
It  is  a  sucking  insect  and  moves  only  when  very 
young  and  then  only  for  a  short  time,  after  which 
it  becomes  fixed  in  place.  Several  generations  are 
produced  each  year.  At  the  North  many  of  the 
scales  die  in  winter  but  those  left  breed  so  fast 
that  they  soon  cover  their  host.  It  is  probably 
spread  to  young  trees  by  the  feet  of  birds,  etc. 
When  this  pest  is  discovered  for  the  first  time 
some  good  expert  in  such  matters  should  be  con- 
sulted. 

Remedies. — The  best  remedies  now  known  are 
the  lime  and  sulfur  wash  and  some  of  the  soluble 
oils  specially  prepared  for  this  purpose,  the  formula 
for  which  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 

Scurfy  Bark  Louse  (Chionaspis  furfurus)  affects 
the  apple  and  pear.  The  life  history  of  this  insect 
Bark"  kSl  is  similar  to  that  of  otner  sca]e  insects.  The  fe- 
in  place  on  males  are  larger  than  the  males,  and  oval;  the 
males  are  very  small  and  slender.  A  branch  in- 
fested with  this  pest  appears  to  be  covered  with  whitish  scurf 
or  dandruff.  It  is  seldom  very  injurious. 

Remedies. — The  remedies  for  the  San  Jose  Scale  are  effective 
here  but  covering  the  branches  with  whitewash  or  lightly  brush- 
ing them  with  kerosene  oil  is  extremely  satisfactory. 

The  Oyster-Shell  Bark  Louse  (Lepidosaphes  uli)  is  about 
the  color  of  the  bark  on  which  it  grows.  It  is  very  injurious 
where  it  occurs  in  great  numbers.  In  appearance  each  scale 
is  long  and  shaped  somewhat  like  an  oyster.  Its  life  history 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


87 


and  remedies  are  much  like  those  for  other  scales.  It  generally 
yields  readily  to  the  whitewash  treatment,  but  where  many  trees 
are  badly  infested  they  should  be  treated  with  some  of  the  solu- 
ble oils,  or  lime  and  sulfur  wash  should  be  used. 

Woolly  Apple  Louse  (Schizoneura  lanigeraj;  branch  form. — 
When  fully  grown,  this  insect  is  dark  colored  and  covered 
with  a  cottony  coating.  They  may  be  found  covering  the  new 
bark  about  wounds  and  in  the  axils  of  leaves  and  buds  and 
they  may  cause  serious  wounds  when  neglected.  It  comes  from 
small  eggs  laid  near  the  base  of  the  twigs. 

Remedies. — They  are  easily  destroyed  by  painting  with  kero- 
sene. Where  very  numerous,  it  may  be  best  to  use  whale  oil 
soap  mixture,  on  account  of  the  danger  to  the  tree  from  using 
kerosene. 

Insects  Attacking  the  Roots  of  the  Apple. 

Woolly  Apple  Louse  (Schizoneura  lanigera)',  root  form. — This 
insect  attacks  the  roots  as  well  as  the  branches  of  the  apple.  On 


33. — Woolly   Aphis,     a. — Mature   insect,    b. — Swellings   on   the 
root  as  a  result  of  its  injuries. 


8?  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

the  roots  it  causes  warty  swellings  and  may  kill  the  trees.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  dangerous  of  all  insect  pests  affecting  the  apple. 
Remedies. — The  best  remedies  for  it  when  occurring  on  the 
roots  are  as  follows:  Remove  the  earth  about  the  crown  for  a 
distance  of  about  two  feet  and  put  on  from  four  to  seven  pounds 
of  tobacco  dust.  Put  back  the  soil  and  irrigate  where  practicable 
to  do  so.  Removing  the  soil  from  about  the  roots  and  apply- 
ing hot  water  has  been  satisfactorily  practiced.  Bi  sulfide 
of  carbon  poured  into  holes  made  with  a  bar  about  the  trees 
has  also  been  successfully  used.  In  doing  this,  make  the  holes 
about  ten  inches  deep  near  the  infested  roots  and  then  pour 
three  ounces  of  the  bi-sulfide  into  each  hole.  Three  or  more 
holes  should  be  made  about  each  tree.  Young  trees  are  often 
destroyed  by  the  woolly  aphis  but  the  old  trees  are  seldom  hurt 
by  it. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Pear. 

Any  of  the  foregoing  insects  referred  to  as  attacking  the 
apple  may  also  attack  the  pear  except  the  woolly  aphis,  and  the 
same  remedies  should  be  used.  In  addition  to  these,  the  pear  is 

attacked  by  the  fol- 
lowing insects: 

Pear     Tree     Slug 
(Eriocampoa  cerasij. 
—These  slimy  look- 
ing insects  are  hatch- 
ed from  eggs  laid  in 
the    tissues    of    the 
leaves   by  a  glossy, 
black  fly  soon  after 
the  leaves  expand  in 
spring.      When  first 
emerging    from    the 
egg  they  are  white 
but  soon  become  cov- 
ered  above   with   a 
slimy  brown  matter 
Fig.     34— Pear    Tree    Slug,    a.— Mature    In-      that  OOTPQ  nut  nf  the 
sect,    b  and  c.— Larva,  side  and  back  view.      tnat  oozes  °ut  °r  tne 
<J- — Worms  feeding  on  leaves  partly   skel-      skin.  The  slug,  when 
etonized  by  them. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  89 

mature,  undergoes  its  changes  in  the  ground  where  it  also  re- 
mains during  the  winter.  There  are  several  broods  each  season. 
The  slugs  eat  off  the  green  surface  of  the  foliage,  leaving  it 
skeletonized.  It  attacks  the  cherry,  plum  and  rose  as  well  as 
the  pear. 

Remedies. — The  remedies  are  the  same  as  for  any  of  the 
leaf-eating  insects,  Paris  Green  and  Pyrethrum  Powder  being 
most  commonly  used.  Dusting  the  leaves  with  air-slaked  lime 
is  also  a  good  remedy. 

The  Pear  Psylla  (Psylla  pyricola). — This  is  a  minute  insect 
that  has  occasionally  done  much  injury  to  pear  trees  by  sucking 
the  sap.  It  is  so  small  as  to  be  seen  with  difficulty  with  the  un- 
aided eye.  In  severe  attacks  old  trees  put  forth  but  little  growth, 
new  shoots  often  wither  and  drop  in  May,  the  leaves  turn  yellow 
and  the  fruit  prematurely  ripens  in  midsummer  and  falls  off.  Its 
presence  is  also  indicated  by  the  honey  dew  which  is  excreted 
by  the  insect  in  large  quantities  so  as  to  cover  the  tree  and 
even  the  vegetation  under  it.  In  this  sweet  solution  a  kind  of 
fungus  soon  starts  and  smears  the  tree  with  a  blackish  coating. 

The  mature  insects  pass  the  winter  hidden  in  crevices  un- 
der the  loosened  bark  on  the  trunks  and  limbs  of  pear  trees. 
During  warm  days  they  crawl  about.  In  the  first  warm  days 
of  spring  the  egg-laying  season  begins.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
creases  in  the  bark  and  in  the  old  leaf  scars.  In  two  or  three 
weeks  they  hatch  into  what  is  known  as  "nymphs,"  which  first 
locate  along  in  the  axils  and  petioles  of  the  leaves.  As  these 
nymphs  grow,  they  change  their  skin  and  in  about  one  month 
become  full  grown  with  wings,  and  resemble  the  harvest  fly 
in  miniature.  They  can  jump  like  a  flea  and  fly  away  upon  the 
slightest  unusual  jar. 

Remedies. — There  are  several  natural  enemies  that  help  to 
hold  the  pear  psylla  in  check,  among  which  are  the  lace  winged 
fly  and  the  red  ladybug.  The  most  effective  treatment  seems  to 
be  spraying  in  the  spring  with  kerosene  emulsion,  applied  with 
considerable  force  to  destroy  the  young.  The  mature  insect  is 
not  easily  reached  in  this  way. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Peach. 

Peach  Twig  Borer  (Anarsia  lineatella). — When  the  buds  of 
the  peach  begin  to  open  in  the  spring,  a  small,  brownish  larva 


90  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

with  a  black  head  eats  into  the  buds  and  destroys  them.  When 
the  new  shoots  start,  the  borer  eats  into  them  causing  them  to 
wilt  and  decay.  Many  of  the  second  brood  of  this  borer  eat  into 
peaches,  causing  a  gummy  exudation  and  ruining  them  for  mar- 
ket The  larvae  that  appear  in  the  spring  spent  their  winter  in 
little  excavations  which  they  made  in  the  fall  in  the  bark  of  the 
trees. 

Remedies. — Early  in  the  spring,  just  before  the  buds  open, 
spray  the  trees  with  lime  and  sulfur  wash  or  with  whale  oil 
soap,  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  two  gallons  of  water. 
Fish  oil  soap,  diluted  once  with  water  or  kerosene  emulsion,  will 
doubtless  do  the  work  nearly  or  quite  as  well  as  the  lime  and 
sulfur  wash.  Many  of  the  larvae  may  be  caught  under  band- 
ages used  as  for  the  Codlin  Moth. 

Peach  Borer  (Sanninoidea  exitiosa). — The  yellowish  white 
borer  commonly  very  destructive  in  peach  trees  is  the  larva 
of  a  wasp-like  appearing  moth  that  lays  its  eggs  on  the  trunks 


Fig.  3o — Peach  borer;  showing  trunk  of  peach  tree  Injured  near 
surface  of  ground  where  gum  and  frass  are  mixed  together, 
a.— Male,  b.— Female. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


and  larger  branches  of  peach  trees  from  the  middle  to  the  last 
of  summer  in  the  North.  The  eggs  soon  hatch  and  the  larva 
works  into  the  trees,  which  exude  a  quantity  of  clear,  jelly- 
like  gum  that  is  often  mixed  with  borings.  The  borer  lives 
in  the  tree  about  one  year. 

Remedies. — Carefully  inspect,  the  trees  in  autumn  and  spring, 
just  below  as  well  as  above  the  ground,  and  remove  all  borers 
with  a  small  pointed  knife.  Wrapping  the  trunks  with  stout 
paper  or  wire  screen  during  the  egg-laying  period  is  recom- 
mended. 

Other  insects  attacking  the  peach  are  several  kinds  of 
aphis  and  curculio.  For  each  of  these  see  similar  heads  included 
under  "Insects  injurious  to  the  apple  and  plum." 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Plum. 

Plum  Curculio  (Conotrachelus  nenuphar). — This  is  the  insect 
which  causes  the  plums  to  prematurely  ripen  and  drop  to  the 

ground.  It  is  not  nearly  so 
destructive  to  our  native 
plums  as  to  those  of  Eu- 
ropean origin  (Prunus  do- 
mestica).  The  latter  are 
often  so  badly  infested  that 
none  of  the  fruit  comes  to 
full  maturity.  While  our 
native  plums  are  stung 
just  as  much  by  the  cur- 
culio as  the  European 

Fig.   36.— Plums  injured  by  Curculio,     plum,  but  few  of  the  eggs 
showing  scars,  also  enlarged  cur-     Qf     th<j     curcullo     develop 

into  the  grub  in  this  fruit,  probably  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth. 
This  insect  is  a  small,  rough,  grayish  or  blackish  beetle,  about  one- 
fifth  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  black  shining  lump  on  the  middle  of 
each  wing  and  behind  this  a  more  or  less  distinct  band  of  a  dull 
yellow  color  with  some  whitish  marks  about  the  body  and  with  a 
rather  short  snout.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  the  young,  green 
fruit  shortly  after  it  is  formed.  Then  she  cuts  a  circle  around 
the  portion  of  the  fruit  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid  to  prevent  it 


92  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

from  growing.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days  and  the  larva 
works  around  the  outside  of  the  stone.  This  causes  the  fruit 
to  become  diseased  and  it  falls  prematurely  to  the  ground. 
Within  the  plum  the  growth  of  the  larva  is  completed.  It  then 
goes  into  the  ground  where  it  transforms  to  a  beetle,  which  soon 
escapes. 

Remedies. — Recent  investigations  seem  to  show  that  clean 
cultivation  and  burning  of  any  grassy  areas  near  by,  in  which 
the  beetles  can  winter  over,  is  most  desirable  in  checking  the 
spread  of  this  pest.  When  the  curculio  gets  alarmed  it  draws 
itself  together  and  falls  to  the  ground.  Advantage  is  taken  of 
this  peculiarity  to  catch  and  destroy  it.  A  sheet  is  spread  under 
the  tree  whose  branches  are  suddenly  jarred,  when  the  beetl-es, 
which  fall  on  the  sheet,  may  be  gathered  and  destroyed.  As  it 
is  important  to  catch  as  many  beetles  as  possible  before  any 
mischief  has  been  done,  jarring  should  begin  while  the  trees 
are  in  blossom  and  should  be  continued  every  morning  until 
they  are  gone.  If  the  insects  are  abundant  this  will  generally 
take  about  three  weeks.  It  will  be  found  that  where  hens  with 
their  broods  of  chickens  are  enclosed  within  the  plum  orchard, 
they  will  devour  a  large  number  of  the  larvae  of  the  curculio. 
If  hogs  are  kept  in  the  same  enclosure  as  the  plum  trees,  they 
will  pick  up  the  fallen  fruit  and  so  destroy  a  great  many  of  the 
larvae  and  assist  very  much  in  reducing  the  injury  from  this 
cause. 

Plum  Gouger  (Coccotorus  scutellaris). — The  plum  gouger 
is  a  snout  beetle  somewhat  resembling  the  curculio,  but  readily 
distinguished  from  it  by  a  little  careful  examination.  It  is  about 
five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  long.  The  head  and  wing  cases  are 
brown  with  a  leaden  grey  tinge,  the  latter  with  whitish  and 
black  spots  scattered  irregularly  over  their  surface.  It  appears 
in  the  spring  about  the  same  time  as  the  curculio,  but  instead 
of  working  around  the  stone  it  eats  through  the  soft  shell  and 
lives  within  the  stone  where  it  undergoes  its  changes  and 
emerges  a  perfect  beetle.  Both  sexes  of  the  Plum  Gouger  bore 
cylindrical  holes  in  the  fruit  for  food.  These  cause  the  fruit  to 
oecome  knotty  and  worthless  but  it  does  not  prevent  their  re- 
maining on  the  tree  until  maturity.  This  insect  does  not  cut 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  93 

a  flat  or  half  circle  around  the  hole  in  which  the  egg  is  placed, 
as  is  so  characteristic  of  the  curculio. 

Remedies. — The  remedies  recommended  for  the  curculio  are 
also  best  for  preventing  the  work  of  this  insect. 

The  Plum  Leaf  Aphis  (Aphis  prunifolii)  commonly  called 
"leaf  lice,"  is  frequently  troublesome  and  occasionally  appears  in 
such  large  numbers  as  to  seriously  check  the  growth  of  the  trees. 

The  life  history  of  this  insect  is  the  same  as  for  the  apple 
leaf  aphis,  which  see. 


Fig.  37.— Hoop  tent  ready  to  put  over  a  tree. 


94  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Remedies. — Tobacco  water,  kerosene  emulsion  and  similar 
materials  often  hardly  appear  to  have  any  effect  when  th-e  lice 
are  very  abundant,  as  the  leaves  curl  up  and  protect  the  lice, 
so  that  they  are  not  easily  reached  and  the  waxy  covering  of  the 


Fig.  38.  —Hoop  tent  in  place  over  tree. 

lice  sheds  water.  At  such  times  it  will  be  found  that  tobacco 
smoke  is  a  most  valuable  and  certain  remedy.  In  applying  it, 
a  tent  made  of  unbleached  cotton,  large  enough  to  cover  the 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  95 

tree  should  be  used.  The  best  form  for  this  tent  is  bag  shaped, 
and  large  enough  to  easily  take  in  the  tree.  The  tent  should 
be  fastened  at  the  bottom  to  a  hoop  made  of  gas  pipe.  In 
operating  the  hoop  tent  the  hoop  is  lifted  up  on  its  edge  close 
to  the  tree  and  gradually  lifted  over  it,  the  slender,  long,  side 
branches  being  pushed  up  under  the  tent.  When  the  tree  is 
finally  enclosed,  tobacco  smoke  is  applied  until  the  tent  is  filled 
with  smoke  so  thick  that  the  hand  cannot  be  seen  before  the 
face;  it  is  allowed  to  thus  remain  for  fifteen  minutes,  which  is 
long  enough  to  kill  all  the  lice.  There  is  no  danger  of  injuring 
the  tree  if  the  tobacco  does  not  flame  up.  To  prevent  this,  the 
tobacco  used  should  be  dampened.  The  most  convenient  form 
of  tobacco  to  use  is  leaf  stems  which  come  from  cigar  factories 
and  can  be  obtained  at  a  very  low  price. 

A  tent  that  will  answer  the  purpose  very  well  may  be  made 
out  of  two  large  pieces  of  cotton  cloth  supported  on  a  light  wood- 
en frame.  Where  the  trees  are  so  very  large  that  they  require 
a  tent  more  than  14  feet  in  diameter,  a  piece  of  one-inch  rope 
will  be  found  to  work  better  than  a  gas  pipe  hoop  to  hold  the 
bottom  of  the  tent. 

Other  insects  injurious  to  the  plum  include  the  peach  borer, 
leaf  slug  and  flat  headed  borer  which  are  described  elsewhere. 
Insects  Injurious  to  the  Cherry. 

The  insects  injurious  to  the  cherry  are  about  the  same  as 
those  injurious  to  the  plum  and  include  borers,  curculio  and 
aphis.  The  cherry  is  also  commonly  injured  by  the  leaf  slug 
which  attacks,  the  pear.  These  insects  may  be  found  under 
their  respective  heads. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Grape. 

Grape  Vine  Leaf  Hoppers  (Erythroneura  vitis). — These  are 
small,  grayish  insects  that  sometimes  appear  on  our  grape  vines 
in  countless  numbers.  When  abundant,  if  disturbed  on  a  hot, 
dry  day,  they  appear  in  clouds,  make  a  short  flight  and  quickly 
settle  on  the  vines  again.  They  breed  most  rapidly  in  hot,  sum- 
mer weather  and  do  most  injury  to  varieties  having  no  down 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  such  as  the  Clinton  and  Beta, 
but  may  destroy  the  foliage  of  any  kind.  They  are  sucking  in- 
sects and  cause  the  leaves  to  turn  yellow  and  even  finally  dry  up. 


96  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Remedies. — By  taking  advantage  of  the  fact  that  the  insects 
are  dumpish  early  in  the  morning  and  may  be  easily  jarred 
to  the  ground,  large  numbers  may  be  destroyed  by  shaking  the 
vines  after  first  laying  down  strips  of  cloth  covered  with  coal 
tar  or  similar  material  that  will  catch  them.  Perhaps  the  best 
remedy  consists  in  making  two  frames  four  feet  square  out  of 
common  lath  and  covering  them  with  cloth  coated  with  fresh  coal 
tar.  Two  men  are  required  to  use  these,  who  place  the  frames 
opposite  one  another  on  each  side  of  the  rows,  and  as  near  as 
practicable  at  the  bottom,  at  the  same  time  gently  jarring  the 
vines  by  striking  downwards,  with  a  few  light  branches,  on  each 
side.  In  this  way  large  numbers  of  the  insects  can  be  caught, 
and  if  this  method  is  persistently  used  this  pest  may  be  kept 
in  check. 

The  Grape  Phylloxera  (Phylloxera  vastatrix)  or  root  louse, 
is  an  American  insect  that  is  frequently  found  on  the  roots  or 
leaves  of  American  vines.  On  the  roots  its  presence  results  in 
the  formation  of  swellings  or  knotty  excrescences.  It  occasion- 
ally appears  on  the  leaves  of  some  species  that  have  thin  foliage 
such  as  those  of  the  Riparia  class,  where  it  forms  many  galls 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  which  sometimes  become  so 
abundant  as  to  seriously  check  the  growth  of  vines.  This  leaf 
form  is  seldom  very  troublesome  and  is  not  necessary  for  the 
propagation  of  the  species.  It  spreads  by  winged  forms  that 
occur  on  the  roots  or  leaves  and  may  travel  through  or  over 
the  land  for  considerable  distances.  On  the  American  vines  its 
presence  does  not  necessarily  cause  death  or  seriously  check 
their  growth,  but  European  vines  succumb  very  quickly  to  its 
attacks  and  it  has  been  the  principal  cause  of  the  inability  of 
growing  European  grapes  successfully  in  this  country.  The  im- 
portation of  this  insect  into  Europe  and  its  spread  there  threat- 
ened to  destroy  the  vine  industry  of  many  sections. 

Remedies. — The  danger  from  this  insect  has  there  been  large- 
ly overcome  by  grafting  the  European  kinds  on  native  American 
species  which  are  resistant  to  this  pest;  the  native  V.  riparia  (our 
River  Bank  grape)  is  commonly  used.  Immense  quantities  of  wood 
of  this  species  have  been  sent  to  Europe  for  this  purpose.  The 
Phylloxera  is  a  native  of  America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountsins 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


and  is  not  found  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but  it  has  been  intro- 
duced into  California  and  foresighted  growers  there  are  prac- 
ticing grafting  their  vines  on  resistant  roots.  Bi-sulfate  of  car- 
bon placed  in  the  ground  about  the  roots  is  a  good  remedy. 
Probably  the  best  treatment  for  the  leaf  form  is  to  pick  and 
destroy  the  infested  foliage. 

The  Rose  Chafer  or  Rose  Bug  (Macrodactylus  subspinosus) 
eats  roses,  the  flowers  of  the  grape,  and,  when  very  abundant, 
many  other  garden  plants.  It  is  a  beetle  with  long,  hairy  legs 
which  is  rather  slow  in  its  movements.  It  is  especially  injurious 
by  reason  of  its  eating  the  flowers  of  grapes. 

Remedies. — Where  they  are  very  abundant,  insecticides  are 
too  slow  in  acting  to  do  much  good  and  all  remedies  fail.  Where 
not  unusually  abundant,  they  may  be  kept  in  check  by  picking. 
Covering  the  flowers  with  bags  has  also  been  resorted  to  with 
excellent  results.  Bordeaux  mixture  seems  to  be  distasteful  to 

them  and  spraying 
with  this  material  will 
often  largely  prevent 
their  ravages  as  well 
as  check  fungus  dis- 


Other  insects  injuri- 
ous to  the  grape  are 
the  Snowy  Tree  Crick- 
et and  occasionally 
some  scale  insects  and 
leaf  eating  insects. 
Insects  Injurious  to  the 
Currant  and 

Gooseberry. 
The  Currant  Worm 
(Nematus  ventricosus) 
is  the  most  trouble- 
some insect  that  at- 
tacks the  currant  and  gooseberry.  The  female  lays  her 
eggs  In  rows  on  the  veins  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves  quite  early  in  the  season.  They  are  white  in  color 


Fig.  39. — Currant  Worm.  Eggs  of  worm 
on  under  side  of  midribs;  holes  in 
leaves  gnawed  by  young  larva. 


98  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

and  about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  long.  These  eggs  hatch  in 
about  *en  days.  The  young  worms  feed  in  companies,  at  first 
eatin^  ^mall  holes  in  the  leaves,  but  later  on  they  destroy  all 
the  green  tissue  in  the  leaf  and  then  spread  in  all  directions 
over  the  bush,  eating  the  foliage.  They  will  frequently  strip  a 
bush  of  its  foliage  in  a  few  days  time  if  left  to  themselves.  When 
full  grown  they  are  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long.  There  are 
two  broods  of  these  worms;  the  first  appearing  before  or  about 
the  time  the  fruit  is  ripe  and  the  second,  two  or  three  weeks 
later.  The  mature  insect  is  a  fly,  somewhat  resembling  the 
house  fly. 


Fig.    40.— Currant    Worm  at   work. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  99 

Remedies. — Powdered  hellebore,  mixed  with  its  bulk  of  flour, 
may  be  dusted  on  the  plants  when  the  foliage  is  wet  or  it  may 
be  used  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  of  hellebore  to  a  gallon  of  water 
and  be  sprayed  on  the  foliage.  Used  in  either  way  it  is  a  very 
cheap,  effective  and  easily  applied  remedy.  But  hellebore  is 
quite  poisonous  and  is  not  safe  to  use  when 
the  fruit  is  ripe,  although  no  danger  will 
exist  if  several  days  should  elapse  after 
the  application  before  the  fruit  is  gathered. 
A  light  shower  after  the  hellebore  is  applied 
will  remove  all  danger  from  it.  Pyrethrum 
insect  powder  is  a  good,  safe  and  effective 
remedy  when  applied  just  at  night,  but  it  is 
very  expensive  and  difficult  to  obtain  of 
good  quality.  Paris  Green  and  arsenate  of 
lead  make  efficient  remedies  when  proper- 
ly applied  and  are  most  commonly  used. 

Where  these  insects  have  made  their 
appearance,  the  first  indication  of  them 
should  be  watched  for  in  following  years 
and  great  care  taken  to  destroy  the  first 
brood  each  season.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
begin  spraying  early,  even  if  no  worms 
are  seen.  Growers  of  this  fruit  should  be 
very  particular  not  to  neglect  the  bushes 
Bor.  after  the  crop  is  gathered,  for  it  is  very 

er  in  its  tunnel  in  important  for  the   next  year's   crop   that 
the     center     of     the   ,..,,,,  ,  ... 

cane,  where  pith  has  they  should  make  a  good  growth  of  wood, 
been  eaten  out.  and  neglecting  them  at  this  time  often  al- 

lows a  crop  of  worms  to  mature  and  cause  more  extensive  injury 
the  following  year.  The  fly  seems  to  prefer  the  foliage  of  na- 
tive varieties  of  gooseberries,  such  as  the  Houghton  seedling, 
for  its  eggs  and  a  few  of  these  bushes  may  be  planted  among 
the  currants,  when  most  of  the  worms  can  be  destroyed  on  them 
as  soon  as  the  eggs  hatch. 

Imported  Currant  Borer  (Sesia  tipuliformis). — In  many 
sections  this  insect  in  its  larva  state  causes  great  injury  to  the 
stems  of  the  currant  and  gooseberry  by  so  weakening  them  that 


100  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

they  break  off  when  loaded  with  fruit  or  by  making  them  sickly. 
The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  the  stems  early  in  the  summer.  In 
a  few  days  the  eggs  hatch  into  little  white  grubs,  which  work 
into  the  pith  of  the  stem,  where  they  make  their  burrows  and 
live  until  the  following  season.  They  then  finish  their  trans- 
formation and  appear  as  wasp-like  moths  and  the  females  shortly 
commence  to  lay  eggs.  This  insect  infests  chiefly  the  rod  and 
white  currant,  but  it  also  attacks  the  black  currant  and  often 
the  gooseberry. 

Remedies. — The  infested  stems  should  be  cut  out  in  the  au- 
tumn or  very  early  in  the  spring  and  burned  at  once.  If  the 
growers  in  any  vicinity  will  follow  this  method  in  united  effort 
they  can  keep  this  insect  in  subjection. 

Lice  (Aphis  ribis)  are  frequently  very  abundant  on  the  foli- 
age of  currants  and  gooseberries,  where  they  cause  the  leaves 
to  curl  up  and  become  distorted,  thus  checking  their  growth 
but  seldom  causing  serious  injury.  The  life  history  of  this  in- 
sect is  about  the  same  as  for  the  apple  leaf  louse. 

Remedies. — They  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  foliage 
with  tobacco  water,  soap  suds  water,  or  kerosene  emulsion. 
In  fighting  these  insects,  it  is  very  important  to  commence  as 
soon  as  the  first  of  them  are  seen  as  they  often  increase  with 
great  rapidity.  On  account  of  the  position  of  the  leaves  these 
lice  are  very  difficult  to  get  at  with  a  spray,  and  on  their  first 
appearance  the  infested  foliage  should  be  destroyed.  It  is  some- 
times most  practicable  to  apply  tobacco  water  by  dipping  the 
affected  branches  into  the  emulsion  or  into  tobacco  water. 
Insects  Injurious  to  the  Raspberry  and  Blackberry. 

Raspberry  Flat  Headed  Borer  (Agrilus  ruficollis). — The  per- 
fect form  of  this  insect  is  a  beetle  which  lays  its  eggs  in  the 
growing  canes  sometime  during  the  summer.  Where  the  eggs 
are  laid,  peculiar  gall-like  swellings  may  occur,  having  many 
rough  slits  in  them;  but  this  is  not  always  the  case,  for  some- 
times canes  may  be  killed  by  the  insect  and  no  swellings  at  all 
appear  on  the  canes.  The  eggs  hatch  into  little  yellowish- 
white  larvae,  having  flattened  bodies,  brown  jaws  and  tails  furn- 
ished with  two  dark  brown  horns.  One  swelling  may  contain 
many  larvae.  When  full  grown  the  larva  is  from  one-half  to 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


101 


three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  and  by  burrowing  in  the  wood  fre- 

quently girdles  the  canes.    The  perfect  beetles  emerge  about 

the  time  that  the  plants  are  in  full  blossom. 

Remedies.  —  As  the  insects  winter  over  in  the  canes,  they 

may  be  destroyed  by  cutting  and  burning  all  the  infested  wood 

some  time  during  the  winter. 

Snowy  Tree  Cricket  (Oecanthus  niveusj.  —  This  insect  does 

not  feed  on  the  raspberry  plant  in  any  way  but  it  is  injurious 

on  account  of  its  peculiar  habit  of  puncturing  the  canes  with 

'.lines  of  little  holes  in  which 
it  deposits  eggs.  If  this  work 
does  not  kill  the  canes,  it  so 
weakens  them  that  when  they 
start  in  the  spring  they  are 
very  apt  to  break  off  as  soon 
as  the  foliage  is  expanded. 
The  eggs,  which  are  laid  in 
autumn,  are  yellow  and  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  long. 
They  are  not  readily  seen 
when  laid,  but  by  the  latter 
part  of  winter  the  infested 
canes  take  on  an  unhealthy 
appearance  by  which  they 
may  be  readily  located.  This 
insect  fe-eds  upon  leaf  lice  and 
is  thus  beneficial  to  some  ex- 
Mature  ins°e^t.  b^Infeste'd'raV-  tent.  but  !t  causes  so  mu<*  in- 


juryby  iayingits 

c.—  Showing  injury  to  cane  berry,  grape  and  other  plants 
as         ordinarily  appears.  w{th  pithy  WQod  th&t  .<.  should 

be  destroyed  as  nearly  as  possible. 

Remedy.—  The  only  remedy  is  to  cut  out  and  burn  the  in- 
fected wood  before  the  eggs  hatch. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Strawberry. 

Leaf  Roller  (Ancylis  comptana).  —  This  insect  is  injurious 
in  its  larva  stage  when  it  is  about  one-half  an  inch  long  and  a 
very  active  worm.  It  will  be  found  nicely  encased  in  a  straw- 


102 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


berry  leaf  that  it  has  drawn  together  by  silken  bands  and  of 
which  it  is  devouring  the  green  surface.  When  abundant,  this 
insect  may  do  very  much  damage.  It  changes  to  a  small  rust 
colored  moth  with  white  markings  on  the  wings  at  maturity. 
It  has  at  least  two  broods.  It  winters  over  in  the  pupa  state 
in  the  ground  near  the  plants. 

Remedies. — The  larvae  are  not  easily  reached  with  any  in- 
secticide as  they  are  protected  by  the  folded  leaf.  The  first 
brood  is  rather  difficult  to  destroy  without  injuring  the  fruit. 
Since  the  second  brood  does  not  appear  until  July,  they  may  be 
destroyed  by  mowing  off  and  burning  the  foliage  of  the  plants 
or  by  scattering  straw  and  burning  it.  Where  there  are  but  a 
few  infected  leaves,  they  should  be  crushed  in  the  hand.  A 
few  trials  will  show  the  best  method  of  crushing  the  worm  in- 
side. Arsenical  sprays  are  also  used  but 
the  insect  is  so  well  protected  that  this 
remedy  is  seldom  satisfactory. 

White  Grub  (Lachnosterna  sp). — This  is 
the  common  white  grub  found  in  sod  land. 
It  is  the  larvae  of  the  June  beetle  and  is 
sometimes  exceedingly  destructive,  when 
plants  are  set  out  on  land  that  has  recently 
been  in  sod,  by  eating  the  roots  of  the  new- 
ly set  plants.  On  land  that  has  been  culti- 
vated for  two  years  it  is  seldom  trouble- 
Fig  43 —a— White  some-  It  lives  several  years  in  the  ground 
Grub!  b.— its  ma-  before  emerging  as  the  full  grown  June 
bug.  It  may  be  avoided  by  not  planting 
on  land  that  was  the  preceding  year  in  sod. 
Strawberry  Weevil  (AntJionomus  signatus). — This  appears 
as  a  small,  blackish  beetle  with  gray  pubescence  when  the 
strawberry  flower  buds  are  well  developed  and  lays  an  egg  in 
each,  afterward  puncturing  the  flower  stock  below  the  bud,  so 
as  to  check  development.  The  larva  feeds  upon  the  pollen  in 
the  unopened  bud,  and  changes  to  beetle  stage  in  midsummer. 
It  also  attacks  a  number  of  other  flowers  in  the  same  way.  Oc- 
casionally it  is  very  troublesome  to  the  strawberry  for  a  num- 
ber of  years;  then  its  injury  stops  suddenly  for  no  apparent  rea- 
son. Only  staminate  or  pollen  varieties  are  attacked. 


ture  form,  known 
commonly  as  June 
beetle. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  103 

Remedies. — The  best  way  of  avoiding  injury  from  this  in- 
sect is  by  planting  chiefly  the  pistillate  sorts,  as  these  are  not 
affected.  In  a  small  way,  the  rows  of  staminate  plants  may  be 
protected  by  mosquito  netting  or  other  covering  until  the  buds 
are  ready  to  open.  The  application  of  insecticides  for  the  pre- 
vention of  injury  by  this  insect  have  not  been  especially  suc- 
cessful. 


QUESTIONS — CHAPTER  VI. 
Insects. 

1.  What  care  should  the  fruit  grower  take  in  suppressing  In- 
sects and  diseases? 

2.  How  have  insects  and  diseases  been  introduced  into  the  fruit 
growing   sections? 

3.  What  effect  do  they  have  upon  the  fruit  grower's  work? 

4.  What  sections  are  usually  exempt  from  insects  and  diseases? 
Example. 

5.  What   are    the    advantages    and    disadvantages    of    State    In- 
spection? 

6.  What  do  the  State  Inspection  laws  provide  for? 

7.  What  would  be   the  benefit  of  a  national  law? 

8.  Into  what  groups  may  the  destructive  insects  be  classified} 

9.  What  are  the  habits  of  each? 

10.  What  are  the  remedies  best  adapted  to  each  group? 

11.  Into  what  groups  may  the  beneficial  insects  and  parasites  be 
classified? 

12.  What  are  the  habits  of  each? 

13.  What    is   the   history   of   the   cottony   cushion   scaie   In   Cali- 
fornia? 

14.  What  insects  are  Injurious  to  the  apple? 

15.  What  is  the  life  history  of  the  Codlin  Moth? 

16.  What  injuries  do  they  cause? 

17.  What  are  the  best  remedies  for  this  Insect? 

18.  How  does  the  curculio  injure  the  apple? 

19.  What  is  the  remedy  for  it? 

20.  What  insects  injure  the  foliage  of  the  apple? 

21.  What  is  the  life  history  of  the  Tent  Caterpillar? 

22.  What  are  the   remedies   for  the  Caterpillar? 

23.  How   do   the   Tent   Caterpillar   and    fall   web   worm    differ   In 
their  habits? 

24.  What  remedy   should  be  used   for  them? 

25.  What  injury  does  the  climbing  cut  worm  cause  on  the  apple 
tree? 

26.  How  may  it  be   destroyed? 

27.  What  insects  injure  the  trunks  and  branches  of  the  trees? 

28.  What  is  the  life  history  of  the  flat  headed  apple  tree  borer? 

29.  What  harm  does  it  do? 

30.  What  remedy  is  used  as  a  preventive  for  the  injuries  caused? 

31.  What  injury  is   caused  by  the  twig  borer?    The  buffalo  tree 
hopper? 

32.  What  is  the  remedy  for  the  twig  borer? 

33.  What  is  the  life  history  of  the  San  Jose  scale? 

34.  What  injury  does  it   cause? 

35.  What  is  the  remedy  for  the  San  Jose  scale? 

36.  What  injury  is  caused  by  the  scurfy  bark  louse? 


104  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

37.  What  Is  the  remedy  for  it? 

38.  What  is  the  life  history  of  the  oyster  shell  bark  louse? 

39.  What  is  the  injury  caused  by  and  the  remedy  for  the  same? 

40.  What  is  the  injury  caused  by  the  branch  form  of  the  woolly 
aphis  and  remedy  for  it? 

41.  What  injury  does  the  woolly  aphis  cause  on  the  roots  of  ap- 
ple trees? 

42.  What  is  the  best  remedy  for  it? 

43.  What  insects  are  injurious  to  the  pear  tree? 

44.  What  injury  does  the  slug  cause? 

45.  How  are  its  ravages  prevented? 

46.  How  does  the  pear  psylla  injure  the  trees? 

47.  What  is   its   life   history? 

48.  What  remedy  should  be  applied? 

49.  What  insects  are  injurious  u>  the  peach? 

50.  What  harm  does  the  twig  borer  cause? 
61.    What  is  the  best  remedy  for  it? 

52.  What  injury  is  caused  by  the  peach  borer? 

53.  What  is  the  remedy  for  it? 

54.  How  does  the  plum   curculio  affect   the  plum? 

55.  What  is  the  remedy? 

Take  up  the  other  insects  discussed  in   the   same  way  as  the 
foregoing. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

DISEASES   INJURIOUS  TO   FRUITS. 

The  diseases  which  the  fruit  grower  has  to  combat  are 
numerous.  No  portion  of  the  plant  is  exempt  from  their  rav- 
ages. Some  diseases  are  perhaps  not  due  to  a  special  growth 
in  the  tissues,  but  result  from  some  physiological  weakness  of 
the  plant,  due  probably  to  unfavorable  surroundings.  Such  trou- 
bles can  be  stopped  only  by  doing  away  with  the  cause,  and 
practically  the  only  method  of  preventing  them  is  by  improved 
cultural  conditions,  as  is  the  case  with  Peach  Yellows. 

The  great  majority  of  plant  diseases  are  what  are  known  as 
fungus  diseases.  These  are  propagated  by  small  bodies  or  spores, 
given  off  in  various  ways,  which  act  as  seeds  in  starting  new 
growths.  The  life  habits  of  these  diseases  are  extremely  vari- 
able and  often  very  complex.  Some  of  them  live  one  generation 
on  one  plant  and  the  next  generation  on  some  very  different 
plant.  For  instance,  the  Apple  Rust  (Gymnosporangium)  lives 
one  stage  on  the  foliage  of  the  apple  and  the  next  on  the  Red 
Cedar,  where  it  develops  the  cedar  apples  that  produce  the 
scarlet,  gelatinous  fruiting  bodies  commonly  seen  on  Cedar  trees 
in  early  summer.  This  disease  may  be  largely  avoided  by  de- 
stroying the  Red  Cedar  in  the  vicinity  of  orchards. 

The  remedies  commonly  used  for  plant  diseases  are  to  cover 
the  susceptible  portions  of  the  plant  with  some  antiseptic  cover- 
ing. Such  materials  are  generally  termed  fungicides.  The  ac- 
tive fungicidal  principle  in  most  of  those  in  common  use  is  some 
salt  of  copper,  so  combined  as  not  to  injure  the  foliage.  The 
most  generally  useful  fungicide  is  Bordeaux  mixture,  which  is 
a  combination  of  the  salts  of  copper  with  lime  and  water.  This 
material*  is  adapted  for  use  in  diluted  form  when  the  tree  is  in 
leaf,  or  when  of  increased  strength,  for  use  when  the  tree  is  bare 
of  foliage.  Sulfate  of  copper  solution  is  a  valuable  fungicide 
for  use  when  trees  are  dormant,  but  is  very  injurious  to  young 

•Formulas  for  Insecticides  and  fungicides  will  be  found  In  the  Ap- 
pendix. 


106  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING, 

vegetation.  Potassium  sulfide  and  other  forms  of  sulfur 
are  used  alone  or  in  combination  as  fungicides.  As  noxious 
diseases  and  insects  are  present  on  many  plants  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  a  common  and  good  practice  to  use  an  application 
that  shall  combine  the  advantages  of  fungicide  and  insecticide. 
A  good  illustration  of  this  is  Bordeaux  mixture  to  which  has 
been  added  a  small  amount  of  Paris  Green.  Such  a  mixture  is 
an  effective  remedy  for  apple  trees  that  are  affected  with  scab 
and  the  Codlin  Moth.  A  very  complete  list  of  fungicides  and 
recipes  for  them  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 
Diseases  of  the  Apple. 

Apple  Blight,  Fire  Blight  (Bacillus  amylovorus).—Tbis  is 
the  disease  that  commonly  kills  the  twigs  and  branches  and 
occasionally  injures  the  trunks  of  apple,  pear  and  quince  trees. 
Its  cause  is  a  bacterial  disease  which  gains  entrance  to  the 
tree  through  wounds  or  through  the  flowers.  The  germs  are 
carried  by  insects  to  the  flower.  The  insects  are  attracted  by 
the  dark,  mucilaginous  fluid  that  oozes  out  of  the  diseased 
wood  in  the  spring  and  which  is  swimming  with  bacteria. 
From  the  flowers  and  other  centers  of  infection  the  disease 
spreads  through  the  whole  plant.  This  is  the  disease  which 
so  commonly  kills  the  young  growth  of  apples  in  June. 

Remedies. — Some  varieties  are  quite  subject  to  it,  while 
others  are  only  slightly,  if  at  all,  affected  with  it;  hence  it 
may  be  avoided  by  selecting  resistant  sorts.  When  it  ap- 
pears the  best  treatment  is  to  remove  and  burn  the  infected 
parts,  cutting  considerably  below  where  the  disease  appears. 
The  disease  may  be  carried  in  pruning  implements  from  a  dis- 
eased to  a  healthy  tree.  It  may  be  well  under  some  conditions 
to  disinfect  pruning  tools  by  the  use  of  kerosene  or  in  other 
ways  so  as  not  to  spread  the  disease  by  them. 

Bitter  Rot  (Glomerella  rufomaculans). — The  summer  spore 
stage  of  this  fungus  does  serious  injury  to  the  apple  in  some 
sections.  It  attacks  apples  before  they  are  ripe  and  also  ap- 
ples in  storage.  The  spots  which  appear  become  sunken,  are 
soft  and  have  a  bitter  taste.  On  the  surfaces  of  these  spots 
the  spores  issue  in  long,  gelatinous,  cylindrical  masses.  These 
are  washed  apart  by  rain  water  and  spread  the  infection.  The 


DISEASES  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  107 

winter  spores  are  produced  on  the  branches  in  canker  spots 
from  which  come  the  new  sources  of  spring  infection. 

Remedies. — Remove  and  burn  all  canker  spots  found  on 
the  trees  each  year,  as  these  are  the  sources  of  infection.  De- 
stroy the  diseased  fruit.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  and 
later,  when  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen,  with  a  copper  carbonate 
solution  will  hold  the  disease  in  check. 

Black  Rot  (Sphaeropsismalorum) 
is  a  common  source  of  trouble.  It 
especially  attacks  the  summer  ap- 
ples at  the  time  of  ripening  and 
the  other  kinds  in  storage.  This 
fungus  also  occurs  on  the  branches 
and  leaves  of  apples. 

Remedies  are  the  same  as  for 
Bitter  Rot. 

Root  Galls,  in  the  shape  of 
roundish  swellings,  are  sometimes 
found  on  the  roots  of  apples  and 
other  trees.  Stocks  thus  affected 
should  be  regarded  with  suspicion, 
although  some  of  these  galls  do 
not  appear  to  be  seriously  injurious. 
Leaf  Rust  (Gymnosporangium 
macro-pus)  and  (G.  globosum). — 
This  disease  causes  serious  injury 
to  the  foliage  of  apples  and  pears 
so  that  the  foliage  and  fruit  crops 
are  destroyed.  This  fungus  causes 
yellow  blotches  on  the  leaves,  and 
later,  cluster  cups  with  thorn-like 
tops  appear  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves.  One  stage  of  this  dis- 
ease lives  on  the  Red  Cedar,  where 
it  produces  Cedar  apples  from 

which  in  the  spring  come  the  bright 
Fig.  44.— Bitter  rot  of  ap- 
ple.     Branch     infested  scarlet,        gelatinous,        honey-like 
with     canker    of    bitter   masses>     The  spores  from  the  Red 


108  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Cedar  form  grow  on  the  apple  and  those  from  the  apple  on  the 
Cedar. 

Remedies. — Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  is  one  remedy. 
The  best  remedy,  however,  is  to  remove  the  Cedar  apples  in 
winter  or  to  destroy  the  Cedar  trees. 


Fig.  43.—  L,eaf  rust  of  apples,  a. — Apple  leaf  infested  with  the  nist 
disease,  b. — Twig  of  red  cedar  showing  old  and  young  cedar 
apples,  c. — Portion  of  the  tissue  of  the  infested  apple  leaves  en- 
larged. 

Apple  Scab  fVenluria  pomi). — A  very  serious  disease  of  the 
apple.  It  attacks  and  kills  the  foliage  and  causes  black,  scab- 
like  spots  on  the  fruit,  and  also  attacks  the  young  growth  oc- 
casionally. The  sources  of  infection  are  the  fallen  leaves  on 
which  the  fungus  matures  its  spores  in  early  spring  in  time 
to  infect  the  unfolding  leaves. 


DISEASES  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


109 


Remedy. — Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  is  the  only 
known  satisfactory  remedy.  Several  sprayings  are  usually  neces- 
sary where  this  disease  is  well  established.  A  winter  spray 
with  strong  Bordeaux  mixture  before  the  buds  open  is  recom- 
mended, followed  by  two  or  three  sprayings  after  growth  has 
started,  at  intervals  of  from  two  to  three  weeks.  Good  ventila- 
tion and  proper  spacing  of  trees  aid  very  materially  in  avoiding 
conditions  favorable  to  fungus  growth.  Burning  or  plowing  un- 
der the  diseased  leaves  which  have  fallen  will  also  aid  in  stamp- 
ing out  this  disease. 

Powdery  Mildew  (Podosphaera  leucotricha). — This  mildew 
seldom  injures  apples  except  young  plants  in  seedling  beds 


Fig.  46.— Apple  infested  with  scab. 

or  nursery  rows.    It  is  most  injurious  to  seedlings  in  their  first 
year,  especially  when  severely  crowded. 

Remedy. — This  disease  may  be  prevented  by  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  commencing  in  the  early  summer  and  re- 
peating at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks. 

Fruit  Scald. — This  occurs  most  commonly  on  cpples  that 
are  kept  in  cold  storage.  Some  varieties  with  tender  skins 


110  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

may  be  Injured  In  piles  In  the  orchard.  The  scald  shows  as 
large  brownish  o>-  black  blotches  on  the  fruit.  Some  varieties 
are  much  subject  to  it  while  others  are  quite  exempt.  The 
subject  Is  not  well  understood,  but  varieties  liable  to  this 
trouble  should  be  stored  where  they  will  have  free  circulation 
of  air. 

Spraying  Injuries. — In  spraying  plants  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  cause  them  some  little  injury.  This  often  shows  in  the  rus- 
setted  appearance  of  the  fruit  or  foliage.  It  may  be  due  to 
the  use  of  chemicals  of  unknown  purity  or  to  the  unusual  sus- 
ceptibility of  the  plant  Carelessness  in  making  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture Is  often  the  cause  of  spraying  injury.  These  injuries  may 
sometimes  be  so  serious  that  they  kill  the  foliage.  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  earliest  spraying  on  the  young  leaves  does  not 
seem  to  cause  injury  so  frequently  as  later  sprayings. 

Frost  Injuries. — Apples  and  pears  are  sometimes  slightly 
injured  by  frost  soon  after  the  flowers  open,  and  in  such  cases 
there  will  often  be  a  russeted  ring  around  the  fruit  or  on  one 
side. 

Sunscald. — This  is  a  name  given*  to  a  condition  of  trees 
when  the  bark  becomes  dead  on  the  southern  or  southwest  side 
of  trees.  It  is  a  very  serious  cause  of  loss  of  trees  in  some 
sections  and  in  such  places  all  trees  should  be  protected  against 
It.  For  description  of  this  trouble  see  chapter  on  Protection. 
Diseases  of  the  Pear. 

The  pear  is  injured  by  about  the  same  diseases  as  the  ap- 
ple. It  is  especially  subject  to  fire  blight,  scab  and  rust,  which 
are  more  fully  mentioned  under  apple.  It  is  also  injured  by 
leaf  Wight  (see  Quince)  and  leaf  spot,  for  which  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture is  the  best  remedy. 

Diseases  of  the  Quince. 

The  quince  is  subject  to  Brown  Rot,  Leaf  Spot,  Rusts,  Scab, 
Fire  Blight,  and  it  is  also  subject  to  the  following: 

Leaf  Blight  (Entomosporium  maculatum). — This  trouble  af- 
fects the  leaves  and  in  bad  cases  may  entirely  defoliate  the 
plants.  On  the  fruit,  the  fungus  produces  black  areas.  On 
pears,  it  may  cause  the  fruit  to  turn  black  in  places,  grow  one- 
sided and  crack  open. 


DISEASES  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


131 


Remedy. — The  remedy  for  this  is  Bordeaux  mixture  applied 
just  before  the  flowers  open  in  the  spring  and  two  to  four  ap- 
plications of  it  later  at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks. 

Black  Rot  (Sphaeropsis  malorum). — This  disease  often 
causes  serious  rotting  of  the  quince  just  before  maturity.  It 
generally  starts  from  the  calyx  end.  The  remedy  is  a  preven- 
tive, and  consists  of  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Diseases  of  the  Plum. 

Plum  Pocket  (Exoascus  pruni). — This  is  a  name  given  X> 
certain  peculiar  deformities  which  occasionally  take  the  place 
of  plums  on  the  trees.  They  consist  merely  of  a  thin  shell  with 
no  evidence  whatever  of  seed.  They  appear  in  early  summer, 
and  some  seasons  this  disease  is  very  abundant  and  then  for 
a  number  of  years  it  may  scarcely  appear  at  all.  It  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  parasitic  fungus  which  attacks  the  young 

fruit,  and  by  growing  with- 
in it  causes  the  peculiar  de- 
velopment which  finally  re- 
sults in  the  formation  of  the 
so-called  pocket.  This,  or  a 
similar  fungus,  may  also  at- 
tack the  foliage  and  cause 
irregular  swellings  and  dis- 
tortion. 

Remedies. — It  will  some- 
times be  found  that  a  sin- 
gle tree  will  be  troubled 
with  this  fungus  for  a  se- 
ries of  years  and  it  will  not 
spread  much.  When  this  is 
the  case  such  trees  should 
be  destroyed,  as  they  are 
likely  to  be  centers  of  in- 
fection, and  the  diseased  fruit  should  be  picked  and  destroyed. 
Some  varieties  are  more  subject  to  its  attack  than  others. 

The  leaf  cur!  of  peaches  is  caused  by  a  fungus  similar  to 
that  which  causes  plum  pockets  and  recent  experiments  show 
that  this  disease  may  be  kept  in  check  by  spraying  with  thick 
Bordeaux  mixture  or  a  solution  of  sulfate  of  copper  just  be- 


Fig.    47.— Leaf    curl    of    plums    In- 
volving twig  and  foliage. 


112 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


fore  the  buds  open.  Later,  sprayings  of  Bordeaux  mixture  may 
be  necessary  if  the  weather  is  rainy.  The  object  of  these  spray- 
ings is  to  kill  the  spores  of  the  disease  which  are  found  on  the 
bark. 

Black  Knot  or  Wart  of  the  Plum  (Plowrightia  morbosa). — 
This  manifests  itself  by  wart-like  or  knot-like  growths  appear- 
ing on  the  smaller  limbs  as  well  as  on  the  larger  branches  and 

sometimes  even 
on  the  trunks.  In 
sections  of  the 
country  where 
the  European 
Plum  (Prunus  do 
mestica)  is  grown 
this  is  one  of  the 
most  serious  ob- 
stacles to  its  suc- 
cessful cultiva- 
tion. Our  native 
plums  are  not 
often  destroyed 
by  it,  but  it  some- 
times causes  seri- 
ous injury  to 
them.  This  knotlike  growth  is  spongy  and  of  a  black  color. 
Upon  examining  it  with  a  microscope  it  is  found  that  the  surface 
has  many  little  cavities  that  contain  the  spores  by  which  the 
disease  spreads.  Spores  escape  from  the  knots  during  the  late 
winter  or  early  spring. 

Remedies. — Upon  their  first  appearance  these  swellings 
should  be  removed  and  burned,  if  they  are  on  the  smaller 
branches  where  it  is  practicable  to  get  them  off.  If  on  the  trunk 
or  larger  branches  where  the  branch  cannot  be  cut  off,  they 
should  be  cut  out  as  much  as  possible  and  painted  with  thick 
Bordeaux  mixture.  Where  trees  are  badly  infested  they  should 
be  removed  entirely.  This  same  disease  also  grows  on  the  wild 
choke  cherry  and  black  cherry  and,  if  abundant  on  them,  their 
removal  will  make  the  extermination  of  the  disease  easier  In 
the  nearby  plum  orchard. 


Fig.  4S.— Plum  pockets  as  they  ap- 
pear on  the  tree. 


DISEASES  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


113 


Brown  Rot  of  the  Plum  (Sclerotinia  fructigena)  is  a  common 
and  serious  cause  of  loss.  See  Brown  Rot  under  the  head  of 
peach. 

Shot  Hole  Disease. — This  may 
be  caused  by  any  of  the  several  fungi 
or  even  by  spraying  injuries.  Any 
of  these  causes  may  destroy  the  foli- 
age in  spots;  after  the  deadened  tis- 
sue drops  out  the  shot-hole  appear- 
ance is  produced,  x 

Crown  Gall  is  the  name  given 
to  a  morbid  growth  wnich  general- 
ly takes  place  near  tne  surface  ot 
the  ground.  It  is  of  a  spongy  na- 
ture and  often  spnencai  in  torrn.  The 
same  disease  or  class  ot  diseases 
also  attacks  the  peach,  raspberry, 
blackberry,  apple  ana  other  trees.  It 
is  most  commonly  injurious  to  trees 
growing  in  the  nursery.  All  stocks 
showing  it  should  be  regarded  with 
suspicion. 

Scab  of  plums  (Cladosporium 
carpophyllum)  causes  dark,  hard  spots  in  the  skin  of  the  fruit. 
It  may  be  prevented  by  spraying  with  weak  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Diseases  of  the   Peach. 

Brown  Rot  (Sclerotinia  fructigena). — This  disease  principal- 
ly attacks  peaches  about  the  time  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen  and 
often  spreads  rapidly.  It  also  causes  decay  in  the  fruit  after 
it  is  picked,  and  is  likewise  one  of  the  most  injurious  foes  of 
plums  and  cherries,  as  well  as  of  the  peach,  while  apples,  pears 
and  quinces  are  sometimes  injured  by  it.  It  sometimes  destroys 
the  young  growth.  If  the  diseased  fruit  is  allowed  to  remain 
on  the  tree  it  dries  up  and  does  not  fall  off.  The  fungus  passes 
the  winter  in  the  diseased  branches  and  also  in  the  dried  fruit. 
In  the  spring  these  send  out  spores  which  start  new  centers  of 
infection. 

Remedies, — The    diseased    dried    fruit   should    be    removed 


Fig. 


knot    of 


114 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


from  the  trees  and  ground  and  destroyed  by  burying  deeply  or 
burning.  During  the  ripening  season  all  rotting  fruit  should 

be  gathered  promptly  and 
burned.  Where  the  fruit 
sets  thick,  thinning  is  of 
much  assistance  in  keep- 
Ing  the  disease  in  check. 
Spraying  has  not  general- 
ly proven  successful,  on  ac- 
count of  the  rapidity  of 
the  spread  of  the  disease 
when  once  started  and  be- 
cause of  the  liability  of 
the  foliage  to  injury  from 
the  spraying  solutions.  It 
is  probably  desirable  to  use 

Fig.  50  — Brown  rot;  half  grown  plums    Bordeaux   mixture   on    the 
rotting   with    this    disease.  ^^  ,n  the  gpring  before 

the  leaves  open,  and  then  apply  two  or  three  sprayings  of  potas- 
sium sulfide  about  picking  time. 

Crown  Gall  or  Foot  Rot. — This  disease  or  class  of  diseases 
affects  the  peach  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  plum.  In  the 
case  of  the  peach,  however,  the  wood  is  made  weaker  and  the 
trees  are  broken  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  thought 
by  some  that  it  is  the  result  of  too  much  moisture,  and  the  or- 
ganism to  which  it  is  ascribed  (Dendrophagus  gobosus)  conies 
in  later  as  a  saprophyte.  There  is  no  known  remedy.  Diseased 
trees  seldom  amount  to  much  and  the  best  treatment  is  prob- 
ably to  remove  and  burn  them. 

Leaf  Curl  (Exoascus  deformans). — This  disease  appears  soon 
after  the  leaves  come  out.  It  causes  them  to  become  distorted 
and  swollen  and  later  those  that  are  infected  the  worst  fall  off, 
leaving  the  tree  nearly  or  quite  bare  of  foliage.  The  remedy 
for  it  is  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  about  two  weeks  be- 
fore the  buds  begin  to  swell  in  the  spring.  In  wet  springs  a 
second  application  of  one-half  strength  can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage. Where  the  trees  are  sprayed  with  lime  and  sulfur  in 
winter  for  scale,  the  disease  is  held  in  check.  A  weak  solution 


DISEASES  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  115 

oi!  copper  sulfate,  containing  one  pound  to  twenty-five  gal- 
lons, applied  in  the  spring  about  two  weeks  before  the  buds 
open,  is  effective. 

Scab  (Cladosporium  carpophylum). — 'This  fungus  occurs  on 
the  fruit,  leaves  and  twigs.  On  the  fruit  it  makes  black  spots 
which  may  unite  and  involve  a  large  part  of  the  surface  in  a 
black  scab,  disfiguring  the  fruit  and  causing  it  to  become  one- 
sided. The  mycelium  lives  over  winter  on  the  infected  twigs. 
Winter  or  early  spring  sprayings  are  recommended  for  the 
Peach  Scab. 

Yellows. — This  disease  is  now  considered  due  to  some  de- 
rangement of  the  plant  functions.  It  is  evidently  contagious. 
The  disease  is  not  easily  distinguished  from  troubles  due  to 
other  causes  and  weak  trees  may  present  symptoms  closely  re- 
sembling those  that  are  infected  with  Yellows.  Its  symptoms 
are  a  general  premature  ripening  of  the  fruit,  which  becomes 
streaked  with  red,  or  spotted,  and  is  of  a  poor  quality;  a  pre- 
mature development  of  the  winter  buds,  giving  rise  to  exces- 
sive branching  on  new  shoots  resembling  "witches  brooms",  the 
formation  of  water  sprouts,  and  finally  a  scanty,  yellowish  de- 
velopment of  the  foliage. 

Peach  Rosette. — This  disease  is  very  similar  to  the  Yellows. 
It  is  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  rosette  arrangement  of  the 
diseased  water  sprouts  which  spring  from  the  branches.  It  gen- 
erally causes  the  death  of  the  tree  in  one  season.  No  remedy 
is  known  except  to  dig  out  and  burn  all  affected  trees  at  once. 

Remedies. — The  best  treatment  is  to  grub  out  and  burn 
the  diseased  trees.  A  rigid  enforcement  of  such  treatment 
would  probably  keep  it  in  check,  as  this  seems  to  be  a  fair 
lesson  to  draw  from  the  wide  experience  of  the  state  of  Michi- 
gan in  combatting  this  trouble. 

Diseases  of  the  Cherry. 

The  cherry  is  subject  to  the  following  diseases: — Black 
Knot,  Brown  Rot,  Leaf  Curl,  Leaf  Spot  and  Powdery  Mildew. 
These  are  all  discussed  under  Plum  and  Peach.  The  remedies 
for  these  is  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Diseases   of  the   Grape. 

Anthracnose  (Sphaceloma  ampelinum). — This  rot  may  at- 
tack the  twigs,  fruit  or  leaves.  On  the  fruit  it  forms  small,  dark 


116 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


spots  with  bright  borders  and  is  called  bird's-eye  rot.  The  dis- 
eased wood  should  be  removed.  When  vines  are  sprayed  with 
Bord-eaux  mixture  for  other  diseases,  this  is  held  in  check,  and 
it  is  seldom  abundant  enough  to  warrant  spraying  for  it  alone. 
Black  Rot  (Guignardia  ~bidwellii) — One  of  the  most  com- 
mon of  injurious  diseases  affecting  the 
grape.  It  sometimes  attacks  the  leaves, 
but  is  most  common  on  the  fruit,  which 
causes  it  to  rot,  turn  black,  and  finally 
dry  up.  The  disease  breeds  in  the 
mummified  fruits  and  in  the  diseased 
leaves  of  the  Ampelopsis  as  well  as  of 
the  grape. 

Remedies. — The  dried  grapes  should 
be  removed  and  burned.     Spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  is  probably  the  most 
certain  remedy  and  if  persistently  fol- 
lowed up  year  after  year  will  be  found 
quite   effective.       The  fruit  should  be 
kept  covered  with  it  until  it  begins  to 
color,  after  which  ammoniacal  carbon- 
ate of  copper  should  be  used.    If  Bor- 
deaux mixture  was  used  up  to  ripening 
FIfhe51gm?l?Cksh^wing    time  the  fruit  would  look  dirty.    Bag- 
infested  fruit  rottett    ging  the  fruit  is  commonly  a  satisfactory 
and  dried.  remedy,  provided  the  bags  are  put  out  as 

soon  as  the  fruit  is  set.  To  spray  effectively  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  will  generally  take  three  or  four  applications,  accord- 
ing to  the  weather.  It  is  sometimes  washed  off  before  it  is  dry, 
when  it  should  be  applied  again.  Some  vineyardists  are  get- 
ting good  results  by  using  a  solution  of  copper  sulfate  (1  Ib. 
to  25  gals,  of  water)  just  before  growth  starts. 

Downy  Mildew  (Plasmopara  viticola). — This  fungus  may 
attack  the  young  wood,  flowers  or  fruit,  or  all  these  at  the  same 
time.  When  it  attacks  the  foliage  it  appears  as  greenish  yel- 
low, or  brownish,  irregular  spots  on  the  upper  surface,  with 
corresponding  spots  of  whitish,  frost-like  mildew  on  the  under 
side.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  have  the  leaves  dry  up  and  fall 


DISEASES  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  117 

off,  frequently  when  the  fruit  is  quite  green,  which,  consequent- 
ly, does  not  ripen.  But,  besides  the  loss  of  fruit  from  this  dis- 
ease, the  wood  is  often  left  in  a  very  poor,  immature  state,  and 
the  whole  plant  so  seriously  weakened  that  it  will  not  produce  a 
full  crop  of  fruit  for  several  years.  It  frequently  acts  in  this 
manner  on  the  Delaware,  while  it  seldom  injures  the  fruit  of 
that  variety.  On  some  other  varieties  the  fruit  is  more  sus- 
ceptible than  the  foliage  and  it  produces  brown  rot  of  the  ber- 
ries, which  may  cause  severe  loss  in  some  season.  In  this 
case  the  first  perceptible  effect  of  the  disease  is  when  a  purp- 
lish spot  appears  on  the  side  of  the  berry.  Later,  the  fruit  is 
covered  with  a  white  mould,  then  it  turns  brown,  and  later  on 
becomes  soft  and  wrinkled. 

Remedies. — Spraying  as  recommended  for  Black  Rot. 

Powdery  Mildew  (Vncinula  necator). — This  mildew  forms 
a  superficial,  cobweb-like  growth  on  the  leaves  and  new  growth, 
and  occasionally  on  the  fruit.  The  remedies  are  the  same  as 
for  Downy  Mildew.  It  is  also  recommended  to  spray  the  vines 
in  the  winter  with  copper  sulfate  solution  to  destroy  the  win- 
ter spores.  Flowers  of  sulfur  has  also  been  used  successfully 
against  this  disease. 

Preventives  of  grape  diseases. — Every  effort  should  be 
made  to  keep  fungus  diseases  from  getting  a  hold  of  the  plant. 
It  has  been  found  that  where  the  vines  are  closely  shut  in,  so 
that  there  is  but  little  circulation  of  air  and  the  water  does  not 
quickly  dry  off  the  foliage,  or  where  the  soil  is  wet  and  cold, 
the  vines  are  very  liable  to  become  diseased.  On  this  account, 
where  a  vineyard  is  subject  to  such  troubles,  the  first  thing 
to  do  is  to  remedy,  as  far  as  is  practicable,  anything  that  ob- 
structs free  circulation  of  air  -through  it.  If  the  land  is  moist 
and  cold  it  should  be  underdrained.  For  brown  and  black  rot 
of  the  fruit  early  bagging  of  the  clusters  will  be  found  quite  ef- 
fective. But  after  these  things  are  done,  disease  may  gain  a 
foothold  and  cause  serious  injury  to  weak  varieties;  hence 
spraying  may  be  necessary.  Some  varieties  are  uniformly 
healthy  in  some  locations,  while  others  are  very  susceptible  to 
disease.  Yet  these  latter  are  often  the  most  profitable  kinds  to 
grow  for  marketing  purposes. 


118  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Diseases  of  the  Strawberry. 

Leaf  Spot,  Rust  or  Sunburn  (Sphaerella  fragariae)  is  a  dis 
ease  which  lives  in  the  tissues  of  the  leaves  and  stem.    In  the 

early  spring  small 
purple  or  red 
spots  appear  on 
the  new  leaves. 
About  the  time 
the  plants  are  ex- 
hausted by  fruit- 
ing, or  perhaps, 
before  the  fruit  is 
fairly  ripe,  these 
spots  increase 
rapidly  in  siz6 
and  in  a  few 
days  what  was  a 
promising  straw- 
berry bed  is  dried 
up  and  worthless. 
Many  varieties 
that  are  hardy 

otherwise  have  foliage  that  is  susceptible  to  this  dis- 
ease, and  some  kinds  should  not  be  planted  unless  some  fungi- 
cide is  used  to  protect  them  from  it.  Our  growers  at  present 
prefer  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  using  fungicides  by  planting 
only  those  varieties  that  are  very  robust  and  healthy.  How- 
ever, it  may  be  desirable  to  grow  some  varieties  with  weak 
foliage.  In  such  a  case  the  newly  set  plants  should  be  sprayed 
three  or  more  times  the  first  season,  commencing  as  soon  as 
the  young  plants  are  well  established  and  twice  the  following 
spring,  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  some  other  fungicide,  begin- 
ning as  soon  as  the  leaves  appear.  To  do  this  requires  no  more 
labor  or  expense  than  it  does  to  spray  for  the  potato  bug  the 
same  number  of  times,  and  the  grower  will  be  well  repaid  in 
the  increased  crop.  Highly  cultivated  plants  are  less  liable  to 
disease  than  those  that  are  neglected. 


Fig.  52 — Rust  or  leaf  spot  of  strawberries. 


DISEASES  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS. 


119 


Diseases  of  the  Blackberry. 

The  Crown  Gall  occasionally  attacks  blackberry  canes  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  causing  irregular  swellings.  It  has 

not  generally  proven  seri- 
ously injurious,  but  un- 
doubtedly, the  part  of 
wisdom  would  be  to  avoid 
setting  new  plantations 
from  a  field  so  infested. 
The  diseased  canes  should 
be  gathered  and  burned. 

Leaf  Spot  (Septoria 
ruH). — This  disease  pro- 
duces dark  colored  spots 
on  the  foliage,  which  are 
sometimes  very  abundant. 
Spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  is  the  best  rem- 
edy. 

Orange  Rust. — The 
blackberry  is  also  injured 
by  the  orange  rust,  which  is  referred  to  under  the  head  of  Rasp- 
berry. 

Diseases  of  the  Raspberry. 

Leaf  Curl. — This  name  is  indicative  of  one  of  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease.  The  leaves  curl  up,  and  though  they 
may  remain  green  all  through  the  season,  the  plants  make  a 
poor,  weak  growth.  The  fruit  is  dull  in  color,  small  in  size  and 
rather  bitter  in  taste.  Later  the  plants  kill  out,  and  any  healthy 
sets  with  which  they  may  be  replaced  soon  succumb  to  the 
trouble.  This  disease  spreads  very  slowly  and,  as  a  rule,  at  the 
beginning  there  are  only  a  few  infected  spots  in  a  plantation, 
which  slowly  increase  in  size  from  year  to  year.  The  spread  of 
the  disease  may  be  prevented  to  a  great  extent  by  pulling  and 
burning  the  diseased  plants  as  soon  as  they  appear.  In  setting 
out  a  new  plantation,  use  only  land  which  has  not  been  in  rasp- 
berries for  several  years  and  take  great  care  to  have  young, 
healthy  sets.  Do  not  accept  plants  from  a  weak  plantation  on 
any  account. 


Fig.  53. — Crown  or  root  gall  of 
blackberries. 


120  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Red  Orange  Rust  (Gymnoconia  inter stitialis)  is  most  harm- 
ful to  the  Black  Cap  raspberries,  though  it  frequently  injures 
blackberries,  dewberries  and  allied  plants.  It  produces  a 
weak  appearance  in  the  canes  and  foliage,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer  the  under  side  of  the  foliage 
becomes  completely  covered  with  a  thick  coat- 
ing of  orange  colored  spores,  which  easily  rub  off. 
One  soon  learns  to  know  the  plants  that  are  dis- 
eased, even  before  the  spores  appear,  and  they 
should  be  pulled  and  burned  at  once.  This  is  es- 
pecially neecessary  with  the  black-cap  varieties; 
but  even  with  these,  if  the  affected  plants  are 
destroyed,  the  disease  may  generally  be  kept  in 
check  until  a  new  plantation  can  be  well  started, 
and  sometim-es  assiduous  attention  to  pulling  and 
burning  results  in  stamping  out  the  disease. 

Crown  Gall  is  sometimes  injurious  to  the  rasp- 
berry the  same  as  to  the  blackberry,  but  it  is  sel- 
dom very  injurious  at  the  North.  In  selecting 
new  sets  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  those  from 
infested  fields. 

Cane  Rust  or  Anthracnose  (Gloesporium,  neca- 
tor)  manifests  itself  on  the  raspberry  by  small 
purplish  spots,  which  may  spread  and  form  whit- 
ish patches  with  purplish  edges.  The  tissue  is 
killed  out  under  the  spots.  It  affects  raspber- 
nif t  °on~rjsp!  rles  generally,  but  the  purple  and  cap  varieties 
berries.  are  most  liable  to  its  injury. 

Remedy. — The  best  treatment  is  to  spray  the  canes  before 
the  leaves  start  with  thick  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  badly  dis- 
eased canes  should  be  cut  out  at  pruning  time  and  only  resistant 
varieties  planted.  Spray  the  new  growth  in  the  spring  once  or 
twice.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  power  of  different  varie- 
ties to  resist  this  disease. 

Diseases  of  the  Gooseberry  and  Currant. 
Mildew  fSphaerotheca  morsuvaej   is  the   worst   disease   of 
the  gooseberry.     It  attacks  the  foliage  which,  as  a  result,  be- 
comes covered  with  a  whitish  mould.    Later  the  leaves  dry  up 


DISEASES  INJURIOUS  TO  FRUITS.  121 

and  drop  off  and  the  wood  fails  to  mature.  In  bad  cases  the 
berries  become  discolored  and  perhaps  ruined.  As  a  rule,  this 
disease  does  not  cause  serious  injury  in  good  locations  in  this 
section;  but  in  wet  seasons,  or  on  wet  land  in  any  season,  or 
where  there  is  a  poor  circulation  of  air  it  may  be  very  destruc- 
tive. 

Remedies. — These  should  be  preventives  largely,  and  con- 
sist of  allowing  plenty  of  room  between  the  plants  for  a  good 
circulation  of  air  and  keeping  them  in  as  vigorous  a  state  of 
health  as  possible  by  manuring  and  cultivating.  If  the  disease 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  face  of  these  precautions,  recourse 
should  be  had  to  the  following  remedy,  which  is  very  satis- 
factory: Spray  the  plants  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  young 
leaves  begin  to  unfold,  and  repeat  it  as  often  as  once  in  eigh- 
teen or  twenty  days,  except  in  times  of  heavy  rains  when  it 
must  be  done  oftener.  For  this  purpose  use  liver  of  sulfur 
(Potassium  sulfide)  dissolved  in  water  at  the  rate  of  one-half 
ounce  to  the  gallon. 

Leaf  Spot  (Septoria  ribes). — Both  currant  and  gooseberry 
are  injured  by  what  is  termed  leaf  spot,  which  causes  deadened 
spots  in  the  foliage.  It  may  be  prevented  by  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  before  the  fruit  begins  to  color  and  again 
after  the  fruit  is  picked. 


QUESTIONS— CHAPTER    VII. 
Diseases. 

1.  What  portions  of  the  plant  are  most  susceptible  to  disease? 

2.  How  are  the  majority  of  plant  diseases  propagated? 

3.  What  Is  meant  by  the  alternation  of  generations? 

4.  How  are  plant  diseases  generally  treated? 

5.  Describe  the  injury  caused  by  the  following  diseases  of  the 
plum  and  give  remedy  for  each:    Plum  Pocket,  Leaf  Curl,  Black  Rot, 
Brown  Rot,  Shot  Hole  Fungus,  Crown  Gall. 

6.  What  diseases  are  injurious  to  the  pear? 

7.  Describe  the  injury  caused  by  the  following  diseases  of  the 
apple  and  give  remedy  for  each:    Apple  Blight,  Bitter  Rot,  Black  Rot, 
Crown  Gall,  Leaf  Rust,  Apple  Scab,  Powdery  Mildew,  Fruit  Scald. 

8.  How  does  spraying  sometimes  injure  the  trees? 

9.  How  does  frost  affect  the  trees? 

10.    What  is  sunscald  and  how  does  it  Injure  the  trees? 

H.    How  may  it  be  remedied? 

12.  Describe  the  injury  caused  by  the  following  diseases  of  the 
peach  and  give  remedy  for  each:  Brown  Rot,  Crown  Gall,  Leaf  Scald, 
Scab,  Yellows. 


122  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

13.  Describe  the  injury  caused  by  the  following  diseases  of  the 
grape   and   give   remedy   for  each:    Anthracnose,    Black   Rot,    Downy 
Mildew,  Powdery  Mildew. 

14.  What  are  some  general  preventives  for  diseases  of  the  grape? 

15.  How  does  rust  or  sunburn  affect   the  foliage   of  the  straw- 
berry? 

16.  What  is  the  remedy  for  it? 

17.  Describe  the  injury  caused  by  the  following  diseases  of  the 
blackberry  and  give  remedy  for  each:     Crown  Gall,  Leaf  Spot,  Orange 
Rust. 

18.  Describe  the  injury  caused  by  the  following  diseases  of  the 
raspberry  and  give  remedy  for  each:     Leaf  Curl,  Orange  Rust,  Crown 
Gall,  Anthracnose. 

19.  What  diseases  affect  the  cherry? 

20.  What  diseases  affect  the  quince? 

21.  Describe  the  injury  caused   by  the  following  diseases  of  the 
quince  and  give  remedy  for  each:    Leaf  Blight,  Black  Rot. 

22.  Describe  the  injury  caused  by  the  following  diseases  of  the 
gooseberry  and  currant  and  give  remedy  for  each:     Mildew  and  Leaf 
Spot. 

Take  up  the  other  diseases  discussed  in  the  same  way  as  the 
foregoing. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

SPRAYING  AND  SPRAYING  APPARATUS. 

The  methods  of  spraying  of  plants  naturally  divide  them- 
selves into  two  groups,  (1)  dust  spraying  and  (2)  liquid  spray- 
ing. 

Dust  and  Liquid  Spraying  Compared. — In  a  general  way  It 
may  safely  be  stated  that  insecticides  and  fungicides  applied 
In  the  dust  form  to  trees  are  not  as  efficient  as  when  applied 
in  the  liquid  form,  and  the  difference  in  efficiency  is  enough  to 
make  it  worth  the  extra  trouble  necessary  to  employ  the  liquid 
form  under  all  ordinary  circumstances. 

The  principal  difficulty  with  the  dust  spray  Is  in  getting 
it  to  stick  to  the  foliage  and  fruit.  It  should  be  applied  while 
the  foliage  is  damp.  This  may  be  soon  after  a  rain,  or  while 
the  foliage  is  damp  with  dew.  Advantage  cannot  often  be 
taken  of  the  former  condition;  hence  one  must  usually  rely  on 
getting  the  dust  spray  on  very  early  in  the  morning  or  oc- 
casionally late  in  the  evening.  In  either  case  it  will  be  out  of 
the  regular  working  hours  and  therefore  disagreeable.  The 
wind  also  interferes  much  more  with  the  application  of  dust 
sprays  than  with  liquid  sprays.  This  difficulty,  however,  Is 
helped  by  the  fact  that  in  the  early  morning,  when  the  dust 
spray  must  usually  be  applied,  there  is  seldom  much  wind  dur- 
ing the  summer  months.  Another  reason  for  the  comparative 
inefficiency  of  dust  sprays — and  this  applies  especially  to  the 
application  of  dry  Bordeaux  mixture — is  that  the  dry  form  can 
never  be  obtained  in  as  finely  divided  condition,  whether  pre- 
'  pared  at  home  or  in  the  factory,  as  good  home-made  liquid 
sprays.  This  means  that  an  equal  or  even  greater  quantity  of 
the  dust  form  cannot  be  as  thoroughly  distributed  over  a  given 
amount  of  leaf  surface  as  can  the  liquid  form,  and  hence  will 
leave  more  unprotected  spots,  through  which  disease  or  insect 
pests  may  enter.  The  great  advantage  in  favor  of  dust  sprays 
is  the  comparative  cheapness  of  their  application  because  large 
quantities  of  water  do  not  need  to  be  hauled  around  in  order 
to  apply  the  spraying  material,  but,  as  previously  stated,  this 


124 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


Is  not  enough  to  make  up  for  the  difference  in  efficiency.  How- 
ever, it  may  become  of  much  importance  in  the  case  of  hilly 
land.  Here  the  light  dust  spray  outfits  can  be  used  when  it 
would  be  impossible  to  get  around  with  a  barrel  of  liquid  spray, 
or,  much  less,  with  the  large  wagon  outfits. 

Liquid  Spraying  Outfits.  Pressure. — The  important  point 
in  the  application  of  liquid  sprays  is  to  get  a  high  pressure. 
This  should  not  be  less  than  75  pounds  on  an  ordinary  pres- 
sure gauge.  For  high  trees  better  work  will  be  accomplished 
with  a  pressure  of  125  pounds.  It  is  not  usually  advisable  to 
use  a  pressure  of  over  125  pounds,  because  it  is  too  hard  on 
the  machinery  and  apparatus  in  general.  The  higher  the  pres- 
sure it  is  practicable  to  maintain,  however,  the  more  efficient 
will  be  the  application  of  the  spray.  This  should  be  applied 
in  the  finest  mist-like  form  pos- 
sible, and  a  good  pressure  is  nec- 
essary to  accomplish  this.  A  fine 
mist  will  float  among  the  foliage 
like  a  fog  if  there  is  not  too  stiff 
a  breeze,  and  will  cover  both  sides 
of  the  leaves  and  fruit  much  bet- 
ter than  could  possibly  be  the  case 
with  a  spray  of  drops  such  as  comes 
from  an  ordinary  nozzle  under  low 
pressure. 

Agitation  in  Barrel  Outfits.— 
The  movement  of  the  barrel  while 
in  use  is  often  sufficient  to  keep 
well  made  Bordeaux  and  other 
light  sprays  from  settling,  but  with 
the  heavier  sprays,  like  Paris  Green  and  lime-sulfur  wash, 
some  provision  for  agitation  is  necessary.  Probably  the  best 
way  to  provide  for  this  agitation  is  to  have  a  paddle  attached 
to  the  pump  near  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  will  move  with  every  stroke  of  the  handle  and  thus  keep 
the  liquid  stirred  up  and  prevent  settling.  Another  method  of 
providing  for  agitation,  known  as  "jet  agitation,"  is  to  leave  a 
small  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  through  which  a  part  of 


Fig.  55. — Knapsack  spray- 
er. 


SPRAYING  AND  SPRAYING  APPARATUS. 


125 


the  liquid  is  forced  out  with  each  stroke.  This  method  works 
quite  well  while  the  pump  is  new  and  the  packing  tight,  but  as 
the  pump  becomes  worn  it  will  usually  be  found  that  all  of  the 
liquid  which  the  cylinder  will  handle  will  be  needed  in  order  to 
maintain  sufficient  pressure.  Moreover,  the  hole  through  which 
the  jet  escapes  wears  larger  in  time  and  thus  further  helps  to 
decrease  the  efficiency  of  the  pump. 

Agitation  In  Tank  Outfits. — All  tank  outfits  should  be  equip- 
ped for  agitation  for  all  kinds  of  spraying  compounds.  It  is, 
however,  desirable  not  to  have  the  agitation  too  violent,  be- 
cause with  some  spraying  compounds,  especially  with  the  lime- 
sulfur  wash,  there  may  be  considerable  sediment  which,  while 
small  enough  to  pass  through  the  strainer  on  the  suction  hose 

and  through  the  nozzle  in 
small  quantities,  may  in 
larger  quantities  cause  con- 
siderable difficulty  with 
these  parts.  The  agita- 
tion should  be  just  sufficient 
to  keep  the  finer  particles  in 
suspension  and  still  allow  the 
coarse  particles  to  settle.  One 
way  of  providing  agitation  is 
to  have  the  tank  sectioned 
crosswise  with  partitions 
every  two  and  a  half  or 
three  feet,  leaving  a  hole 
about  a  foot  wide  and  six 
inches  high  through  which  the 
liquid  will  rush  and  cause  a 
general  stirring  up  every  time 
the  wagon  is  driven  forward 
does  well  with  small 
well  made  Bordeaux  and 
but  where  they  tend  to 


Fig.  56. — Plum  leaf  covered  with 
arsenate  of  tead  after  10  days. 
Showing    how    well    it   sticks 
to   the   foliage, 
another     tree.    This     method 


to 

to     medium-sized     trees     with 

the    lighter    spraying    compounds 

settle  rapidly,  such  agitation  is  seldom  sufficient,  and  where  the 

trees   are   so   large    that    considerable   periods   occur   between 

movements  of  the  wagon  it  is  entirely  insufficient.    Another 

objection  to  this  method  is  that  the  partitions  make  it  difficult 


126 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


to  clean  out  the  tank  and  remove  the  coarse  sediment  which 
collects  in  the  bottom.  A  better  method  of  providing  for  agi- 
tation is  by  means  of  a  rod  running  lengthwise  of  the  tank,  with 
perforated  cross  pieces  about  six  or  eight  inches  high,  cut 
rounding  to  fit  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  and  twelve  to  sixteen 
inches  wide,  attached  at  every  two  and  one-half  or  three  feet. 
There  aro  two  methods  of  giving  this  apparatus  the  alternating 
backward  and  forward  movement  necessary  for  agitation.  Prob- 
ably the  most  common  way  is  by  means  of  a  chain  drive  from 
one  of  the  hind  wheels  of  the  wagon.  This  method,  of  course, 
supplies  agitation  only  when  the  wagon  is  in  motion  and  is 
therefore  to  some  extent  open  to  the  same  objections  as  the 
preceding  method.  It  has  the  advantage,  however,  of  giving 

more  thorough  agitation  while 
It  Is  working  and  of  being 
such  a  simple  arrangement 
that  it  can  easily  be  made, 
and  there  is  little  about  it  to 
get  out  of  order.  The  other 
method  of.  supplying  the  mo- 
tion to  the  agitator  is  by  hav- 
ing it  connected  with  the 
pump.  Up  to  the  present 
time  no  really  substantial 
method  of  connection  has 
been  devised,  and  little  pro- 
vision has  been  made  for 
regulating  the  amount  of  agi- 
tation given.  Usually  this 
agitator  gives  more  agitation 
than  is  needed.  It  will,  how- 
ever, probably  be  the  best 
method  when  It  has  become  perfected,  because  it  is  con- 
tinuous. Provision  is  sometimes  made  for  hand  operation  of  the 
agitator  by  means  of  a  handle  fastened  in  the  top  of  the  tank. 

The  working  parts  of  pumps  and  the  lining  of  the  bamboo 
spray  poles  should  be  of  brass  for  most  spraying  compounds. 
If  the  parts  are  made  of  iron  they  are  liable  to  ordinary  rust- 
ing and  to  corrosion  by  Bordeaux  mixture  and  similar  corn- 


Fig.   57. — Barrel   sprayer. 


SPRAYING  AND  SPRAYING  APPARATUS. 


127 


pounds.  With  the  lime-sulfur  wash  iron  parts  last  longer 
than  brass  parts,  but  any  kind  of  metal  will  wear  rapidly,  since 
this  compound  contains  much  grit  on  account  of  the  large  quan- 
tities of  lime  used  in  making  it. 

Air  Chamber.  —  All  spray  pumps  should  be  provided  with 
an  air  chamber  of  liberal  size.  This  equalizes  the  pressure 
between  the  strokes  of  the  pump,  thus  giving  a  more  even  flow 
of  spray  from  the  nozzle  and  easing  the  strain  on  the  hose. 

Nozzles.  —  Most  of  the  nozzles  now  in 
use  have  a  chamber,  known  as  the  "ed- 
dy chamber,"  underneath  the  nozzle-cap, 
with  the  entrance  into  the  chamber  so  ar- 
ranged that  a  rapid,  whirling  motion  of 
the  liquid  results  and  causes  the  liquid, 
if  under  proper  pressure,  to  break  up  and 
leave  the  nozzle  in  a  very  finely  divided, 
mist-like  condition.  There  are  a  number 
of  types  of  nozzles,  but  the  amateur  will 
probably  have  the  best  success  by  using 
nozzles  of  the  Vermorel  type.  Where 
sufficient  power  is  available,  as  with 
gasoline  engines,  two  or  more  poles  may 
be  run  from  one  pump,  each  pole  bear- 
ing from  two  to  four  nozzles. 

Clogging  of  the  nozzle  may  result 
from  several  causes.  The  most  common 
is  improper  straining.  The  spraying 
mixtures  should  always  be  strained, 
when  run  into  the  spraying  barrel  or 
tankj  through  as  fine  a  mesh  ag  possible. 

For  lime-sulfur  wash  about  twenty  meshes  per  inch  must  be 
used  because  a  smaller  mesh  fills  up  badly.  For  most  other 
sprays  a  mesh  as  small  as  twenty-five  per  inch  should  be  used  if 
possible.  A  much  finer  mesh  can  be  used  when  the  strainer  is 
made  with  the  wire  mesh  on  the  sides  as  well  as  on  the  bottom 
because  this  allows  the  liquid  to  continue  to  pass  through  the  strain- 
er when  the  bottom  has  been  covered  with  sediment,  as  frequent- 
ly occurs  with  lime-sulfur  wash.  The  mesh  should  be  of  brass 
or  copper.  Whenever  burlap  is  used  for  holding  the  dissolving 


Fig.        5«—  Bucket 
pump   outfit. 


128 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


blue  vitriol,  it  should  be  of  a  good,  firm  grade.  If  It  is  flimsy, 
much  fiber  may  leave  the  burlap  and  ultimately  get  into  the  noz- 
zles and  clog  them.  Wood  fiber,  becoming  loose  from  the  in- 
side of  the  spray  tank,  will  also  frequently  cause  clogging  of 
the  nozzle.  A  high  pressure  will  drive  much  sediment  through, 
the  nozzles  that  otherwise  would  clog  them. 

Hose. — The  hose  must  be  strong  and  durable  in  order  to 
avoid  delays  from  breakage  and  disagreeable  leakages.  Three- 
ply  three-eighth  inch  is  most  commonly  used.  One  extensive 
fruit  grower  in  the  East  uses  seven-ply  three-eighth  inch  hose. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  larger  hose  because  it  does  not 
stand  the  pressure  so  well  and  is  heavier  to  drag  around  from 
tree  to  tree  in  spraying. 

Thoroughness  of  work  is  es- 
sential to  real  success  in  spray- 
ing. The  man  who  goes  about 
his  trees  in  a  "hit  or  miss"  fash- 
ion, leaving  a  branch  unsprayed 
here  and  the  center  of  the  tree 
unsprayed  there,  is  the  one  who 
finds  that  spraying  does  not  pay. 
An  apple  that  is  not  completely 
covered  with  a  coat  of  poison  is 
not  completely  protected  from 
the  second  brood  of  the  codlin 


Fig.  59.  — Inexpensive  com- 
pressed air  sprayer  for 
spraying-  currants,  pota- 
toes, cabbages,  etc. 


moth  larvae.  Every  inch  of  twig  and  branch  of  a  tree  sprayed 
for  the  San  Jose  scale,  that  is  not  coated  with  the 
mixture,  has  just  as  many  live  scales  on  it  as  it 
had  before  the  spraying  outfit  came  by  that  tree,  and 
hence  remains  unmolested  as  a  source  of  infection  on  the  new 
growth  and  of  re-infection  on  the  treated  portions  as  soon  as 
the  coat  of  spray  becomes  ineffective.  Many  who  begin  to  spray 
after  an  orchard  is  about  full  grown  find  that  the  trees  are  set 
too  closely  together.  Enough  space  should  be  left  between  the 
rows  to  permit  the  ready  passage  of  the  spraying  outfit  at  all 
times.  It  is  impossible  to  do  good  work  in  spraying  trees  where 
one  cannot  get  around  conveniently  with  the  spray  pole.  More- 
over, in  a  closely  set  orchard,  a  horse  pulling  a  barrel  outfit  on 


SPRAYING  AND  SPRAYING  APPARATUS.  129 

a  stone-boat  will  often  not  be  able  to  get  down  the  row,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  impossibility  of  getting  through  with  a  power 
outfit. 

Kinds  of  Spraying  Outfits. — For  spraying  on  a  very  small 
scale,  the   knapsack,   bucket  pump,   and  five-gallon   compressed 


Fig.  go. — One  of  the  many  types  of  sprayers  with  power  from  a  gaso- 
line  engine. 

air  outfits  are  very  serviceable.  The  cheapest  and  most  gen 
erally  useful  spraying  outfit  on  areas  up  to  five  acres  is  a  first- 
class  oil  barrel  set  upright  on  a  stone-boat  with  a  good  spray 
pump  fastened  on  it.  On  larger  areas  up  to  15  or  20  acres  the 
wagon  tank  with  a  horizontal  hand  pump  is  more  practicable, 
since  it  has  greater  capacity  and  efficiency.  On  areas  of  over 
twenty  acres  the  air-cooled  gasoline  outfit  will  usually  be  a  good 
investment.  It  relieves  the  laborious  work  of  pumping  by  hand, 
and  correspondingly  reduces  the  working  force  necessary  and 
gives  a  higher  pressure.  With  a  little  mechanical  ingenuity 
and  care  on  the  part  of  the  operator  it  should  be  easily  kept 
in  good  working  order. 


130  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Another   type   of  spraying   outfit  is  what  is  known  as  the 
"gas  sprayer."    The  spray  mixture  is  run  into  a  tight  steel  tank 


Fig.  61. — Forms  of  Vermorel  Spray  nozzles  in  common  use.  a. — Ver- 
morel  nozzle  with  an  opening,  c. — Vermorel  nozzle  with  four 
openings,  b. — The .  top  and  base  of  extension  rod,  showing  a 
cap  to  keep  the  spray  liquid  off  the  hand. 

of  50  to  250  gallons  capacity.  A  carbon  dioxide  gas  tank  is 
connected  with  this  and  the  gas  released  from  it,  according  to 
the  pressure  desired,  into  the  spray  tank.  This  method  has 
the  advantage  of  being  the  most  simple  arrangement  possible. 
It  is,  however,  expensive,  since  the  gas  tanks  must  be  sent  back 
to  headquarters  to  be  refilled,  involving  considerable  cost  in 
freight  in  distant  locations,  as  well  as  the  cost  of  refilling.  In- 
Jury  has  frequently  resulted  to  trees  sprayed  with  this  type  of 
sprayer,  presumably  because  the  carbon  dioxide  gas  united  with 
the  "lime"  in  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  leaving  free  copper  sul- 
fate  which  burned  the  foliage. 


SPRAYING    AND    SPRAYING    APPARATUS.  131 


Fig.  62. — Spray  pump  with  hori- 
zontal  movement. 


QUESTIONS— Chapter    VIII. 
Spraying     and     Spraying     Apparatus. 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  dust  spraying? 

2.  What  are  the  important  things  to  be  remembered  for  success- 
ful liquid  spraying? 

3.  By  what  means  can  the  spraying  mixture  be  kept  well  mixed 
in  the  barrel  spraying  outfits?    In  the  tank  spraying  outfits? 

4.  What  materials  should  be  used  for  making  the  working  parts 
of  spray  pumps? 

5.  What  causes  the  clogging  of  the  nozzles  and  how  may  it  be 
remedied? 

6.  What  care  should  be  taken  in  spraying  the  orchard? 

7.  What  spraying  outfits  are  best  adapted  to  small  areas?    To 
large  areas? 


CHAPTER  IX. 

HARVESTING,   MARKETING  AND   STORING    FRUIT. 

While  good,  sound  business  judgment  is  necessary  through- 
out the  whole  round  of  successful  fruit  growing,  it  is  especially 
important  when  the  grower  comes  to  picking  and  marketing. 
The  successful  fruit  grower  must  not  only  study  how  to  raise 
fruit  and  what  kinds  are  needed  in  the  markets  of  the  world 
but  he  must  learn  the  best  way  to  market  it  so  as  to  bring 
him  the  largest  possible  returns.  Markets  may  easily  be  di- 
vided into  small,  local  and  large,  and  the  methods  of  selling 
may  vary  greatly  in  different  sections.  The  ways  of  doing  busi- 
ness are  much  more  uniform  in  the  large  markets,  but  there 
is  much  difference  in  this  respect  in  different  sections  and  the 
grower  should  study  carefully  the  peculiarities  of  his  markets. 

Fruit  growers  may  also  be  divided  into  classes,  according 
as  they  retail  or  wholesale  their  products.  Large  fruit  growers 
must  be  wholesalers,  while  many  small  growers  can  often,  to 
advantage,  work  up  a  retail  business.  The  methods  of  dis- 
tributing fruit  have  become  very  much  improved  in  recent  years 
so  that  the  prices  are  more  uniform  than  formerly.  This,  to 
be  sure,  interferes  with  the  high  prices  that  occasionally  pre- 
vailed in  local  markets  under  the  old  methods.  On  the  other 
hand  it  makes  less  liable  the  glutting  of  the  local  market  and 
the  resultant  low  prices  that  were  so  troublesome  formerly, 
so  that  the  present  conditions  are  probably  better  than  the  old 
for  both  the  producer  and  the  consumer. 

Picking. — The  marketing  of  fruit  begins  with  the  picking 
for  it  is  the  first  step  in  selling  it.  No  matter  how  carefully 
other  details  are  attended  to,  the  picking  must  be  done  right 
or  the  fruit  will  be  of  little  value.  Fruit  allowed  to  become 
too  ripe  before  picking,  or  roughly  handled  in  picking,  may  be 
rendered  unsalable.  For  best  results,  fruit  to  be  marketed  iu 
fresh  condition  must  be  picked  by  hand. 

The  exact  time  to  pick  fruit  can  only  be   determined  by 


HARVESTING,  MARKETING  AND  STORING  FRUIT. 

experience.    A  rule  for  this  cannot  be  laid  down  for  every  claims 
of  fruits. 

Time  to  Pick  Fruit. — Strawberries  are  picked  when  they 
begin  to  turn  red,  and  raspberries  when  the  fruits  part  readily 
from  the  stem  on  which  they  grow;  blackberries  and  dewber- 
ries as  soon  as  well  colored,  although  the  flavor  would  general- 
ly be  improved  by  allowing  them  to  remain  longer  on  the 
plants.  Gooseberries  are  generally  marketed  green;  currants 
are  allowed  to  color,  but  are  not  allowed  to  ripen  and  are  gener- 
ally preferred  for  jelly-making  when  a  few  berries  show  some 
green  color.  Cherries  are  picked  as  soon  as  well  colored.  This 
will  depend  somewhat  on  the  variety.  Plums  may  be  picked 
when  they  are  well  colored.  The  Japanese  kinds  color  well 
after  picking.  Prunes  are  generally  allowed  to  ripen  on  the 
trees  and  are  shaken  off  if  to  be  used  for 
drying.  If  to  be  shipped  for  use  when 
fresh,  they  are  picked  as  soon  as  well  col- 
ored. Pears  are  usually  picked  as  soon  as 
full  grown  and  are  preferably  ripened  in 
the  shade.  For  the  distant  market  it  is 
necessary  that  pears  be  shipped  green 
and  be  allowed  to  ripen  in  transit.  At 
Fresno,  California,  the  season  for  Bart- 
lett  pears  lasts  two  months,  the  first  ship- 
ments beginning  as  soon  as  the  fruit  Is 
large  enough  to  sell.  Peaches  for  the 
nearby  market  are  picked  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  show  a  slight  softness  and  be- 
fore they  are  mellow;  for  the  distant  mar- 
ket, they  are  picked  quite  green.  Summer 
cooking  apples  are  generally  picked  as 
soon  as  large  enough  to  use,  without  re- 
gard to  ripeness.  All  the  summer  apples 
that  are  to  be  shipped  must  be  picked  green 
as  they  are  quite  perishable  when  ripe.  It  may  be  best,  however, 
to  allow  them  to  color  a  little.  Late  varieties  are  picked  as  soon 
as  well  colored  and  before  severe  frosts.  Apples  should  always 
be  picked  earlier  if  they  show  by  the  windfalls  that  they  are 


Fig.  63.— Ladder  in 
common  use  for 
picking  fruit. 


134 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


ripening,  as  there  is  liable  to  be  serious  loss  from  this  cause. 
Winter  apples  generally  keep  best  if  picked  a  little  before  they 
are  fully  colored,  but  while  still  firm  and  hard.  Grapes  should 
be  picked  when  fully  ripe,  as  they  do  not  ripen  after  being 
picked. 


Fig.  64. — Picking  scene  in  an  apple  orchard.  Note  the  low-headed 
trees,  which  make  it  possible  to  reach  all  the  fruit  from  the  ground 
or  from  short  ladders.  The  pickers  are  equipped  with  canvas  bags 
hung  over  the  shoulders,  in  which  the  fruit  is  placed  as  picked. 
This  leaves  both  hands  free  and  allows  rapid  work.  The  fruit  is 
taken  to  the  packing  shed  in  bushel  baskets,  and  is  then  care- 
fully packed  in  boxes  or  barrels. 


The  stems  should  be  left  on  strawberries,  plums,  apples, 
pears,  grapes,  currants  and  cherries.  If  the  stems  are  pulled 
out  of  the  fruits,  injuries  are  caused  that  encourage  rotting. 

Fruit  should  seldom  be  shipped  in  the  same  package  that 


HARVESTING,  MARKETING  AND  STORING  FRUIT.    135 

It  is  picked  in,  but  should  be  sorted  into  other  suitable  pack- 
ages in  a  cool  storehouse. 

Local  peddling  is  possible  where  the  grower  lives  near  his 
customers.  In  some  sections  the  .dealers  have  combined  and  se- 
cured legislation  which  has  made  this  prohibitory;  but  where 
practicable,  it  is  a  very  satisfactory  way  of  disposing  of  the 
product  so  as  to  get  the  highest  possible  price.  A  variety  of 
fruits  are  most  easily  disposed  of  in  this  way  and  under  some 
conditions  it  is  a  good  plan  to  combine  the  peddling  of  fruit 
with  a  vegetable  business. 

Commission  Dealer. — The  larger  grower  must  find  some 
party  to  sell  his  produce.  It  may  be  best  for  him  to  do  this 
through  the  commission  merchant.  In  any  case,  it  should  be 
understood  that  the  larger  grower  has  a  decided  advantage  over 
the  small  grower  as  he  is  a  bigger  factor  in  the  market  and  will 
receive  more  attention.  It  is  most  important  to  secure  an  hon- 
est and  able  commission  dealer  if  the  business  is  to  be  done  in 
this  way.  The  usual  charge  for  handling  fruit  is  10%  of  the 
gross  sales. 

Associations  of  fruit  growers,  when  well  managed,  offer  the 
most  satisfactory  method  of  selling.  Here  the  sales  are  made 
by  an  agent  of  the  growers.  Such  an  arrangement  gives  to  a 
large  number  of  small  growers  a  power  in  the  market  equal 
to  that  of  the  big  grower  and  shipper.  It  prevents  their  com- 
peting injuriously  with  one  another  in  the  local  or  distant  mar- 
ket and  reduces  marketing  to  a  simpler  matter.  The  small  grow- 
er can  stay  at  home  and  look  after  the  picking  and  packing,  as 
he  does  not  have  to  go  to  market  when  he  sells  through  an  as- 
sociation, and  still  he  is  a  controlling  factor  in  the  market. 
Organizations  of  this  kind  should  have  correspondents  over  a 
large  territory  and  they  can  often  ignore  the  prices  prevailing  in 
the  local  markets. 

Fruit  Packages. 

Packing. — The  packages  for  fruits  are  many  and  various 
and  the  shipper  should  be  familiar  with  them  all.  In  some  of 
the  older  fruit  sections  it  is  customary  to  have  the  pack- 
ages for  small  fruit  returned  to  the  packer.  As  a  rule  this 
Is  a  poor  practice  and  results  in  the  use  of  unsightly  pack- 


136 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


ages  which  hurt  the  sale  of  the  fruit.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
practice  of  using  dirty  barrels  for  apples.  The  common  experi- 
ence of  the  larger  fruit  growers  leads  to  a  belief  in  the  gift  pack- 
age for  general  marketing.  In  fact,  for  long  distant  shipments, 
the  return  package  is  out  of  the  question,  although  it  may  do 
for  some  local  markets.  Every  fruit  shipper  should  occasionally 
visit  the  great  markets  and  study  this  question  of  marketing 


Fig.  65. — Fruit  packages,  showing  bushel  basket  with  cover, 
gift  package  for  berries  and  grape  basket. 


-quart 


fruits  at  first  hand.  He  will  probably  learn  more  about  fruit 
packages  in  a  single  hour  of  inspection  at  such  a  place  than  in 
a  week  of  studying  such  a  subject  in  the  small  markets. 

Uniform  packages. — While  there  are  a  great  variety  of  fruit 
packages  in  use  in  the  different  markets  of  this  country,  it  is 
very  desirable  that  the  packages  used  for  selling  fruit  in  the 
same  market  be  uniform.  For  instance,  it  is  important  to  have 
all  the  so-called  quart  boxes,  such  as  are  commonly  used  for 
selling  small  fruit,  of  the  same  size,  otherwise  there  will  be 
lack  of  fair  competition  among  growers,  since  many  buyers  do 
not  properly  distinguish  between  the  standard  package  and  one 
that  is  short.  In  some  states,  and  notably  in  Canada,  legislation 
has  been  invoked  for  this  purpose  and  with  good  effect.  Thess 
laws  generally  take  the  form  of  prohibiting  any  person  from 
offering  for  sale  any  fruit  package  smaller  than  the  prescribed 
size  unless  each  package  is  plainly  labeled  that  it  is  short  in  size. 
There  Is  much  more  attention  paid  to  this  subject  in  America 


HARVESTING,  MARKETING  AND  STORING  FRUIT.     137 


than  in  Europe  where  comparatively  little  fruit  is  used  and  that 
generally  marketed  in  a  variety  of  packages. 


Fig.    66. — Fruit   package   with    separate    compartment   for   each   fruit. 

The  following  list  shows  some  of  the  fruit  packages  that  are 
prescribed  by  law: 

Fruit   Package   Laws. 
New  York  Small   Fruit  Package  Law: 

Quarts  shall  contain  67  cubic  inches. 

Pints  shall  contain  33^  cubic  inches. 

Vz  Pint  shall  contain  16%  cubic  inches. 
New  York  Apple,  Pear,  Quince  and  Potato  Barrel  Law: 

Barrels  shall  contain  100  quarts  of  grain,  dry  measure. 

Head  diameter  shall  be  17%  inches. 

Stave  length  shall  be  28%  inches. 

Bulge  shall  not  be  less  than  64  inches,  outside  measurement. 

Potatoes  sold  by  weight  shall  weigh  174  pounds  to  the  barrel. 


138  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Massachusetts  Berry  Basket  Law: 

Baskets  shall  be  of  the  capacity  of  one  quart,  one  pint,  or 

one-half  pint,  Massachusetts  standard  dry  measure. 
New  Jersey  Peach  Basket  Law: 

Peach  baskets  shall  hold  sixteen  quarts,  Winchester  %  bu. 

measure. 

Height  of  basket  shall  be  12%  inches. 
Width  across  top  of  basket  shall  be  13%  inches. 
Inside  measurement  shall  contain  1075.1  cubic  inches. 
Missouri  Apple  Barrel   Law: 

Length  of  apple  barrel  shall  be  28%  inches. 

Chimes  shall  be  %  of  an  inch  at  the  ends. 

Diameter  of  heads  shall  be  17%  inches. 

Diameter  of  the  center  of  the  barrel,  inside,  shall  be  20% 

inches. 
Canadian  Fruit  Package  Law: 

Apples  packed  in  Canada  for  export  shall  be  packed  in  bar- 
rels. 
Distance  between  the  heads,  inside  measurement,  shall  be 

26%,  inches. 

Head  diameter  shall  be  17  inches. 
Middle  diameter  of  barrel  shall  be  18%  inches. 
Canadian  Fruit  Baskets  shall  contain,  when  level  full 
a — Fifteen  quarts  or  more. 

b — Eleven  quarts  and  be  5%  inches  deep,  inside  measure- 
ment. 
c — Six  and  two-thirds  quarts  and  be  4%  in.  deep,  inside 

measurement. 

d — Two  and  two-fifths  quarts. 
Michigan  Peach  Basket  Law: 

Peach  basket  shall  contain  716  4-5  cubic  inches  or  1-3  bu. 
Michigan  Standard  Barrel  Law: 

Barrel  staves  shall  be  27  inches  long. 
Heads  shall  be  16%  ins.  in  diameter. 
Maine  Barrel  Law: 

A  barrel  of  potatoes  shall  weigh  165  pounds. 
Tennessee  Apple  Barrel  Law: 

Apple  barrels  shall  contain  2%  bushels. 


HARVESTING,  MARKETING  AND  STORING  FRUIT.     139 

Wisconsin  Apple  Barrel   Law: 

Apple  barrels  shall  contain  100  quarts,  dry  measure. 
Florida  Orange  Box: 

The  standard  orange  box  adopted  by  the  Florida  Fruit  Ex- 
change measures  12x12x26%  inches. 
Georgia  Peach  Crate: 

The  peach  crate  adopted  by  the  Georgia  Horticultural  Socie- 
ty measures  8x12^x22  inches. 

Raspberries,  blackberries,  currants,  gooseberries,  strawber- 
ries and  small  plums  are  generally  shipped  in  boxes  that  are  com- 
monly called  quarts  and  occasionally  in  pint  boxes.  There  is 
quite  a  variety  in  the  forms  and  sizes  of  boxes  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  the  Central  states,  almost  without  exception,  the  gift 
package  is  used  and  here  the  boxes  are  generally  made  of  wood 
veneer,  with  the  bottom  raised  about  one-half  inch  and  the  cor- 
ners ventilated.  Cases  usually  contain  sixteen  or  twenty-four 
pints  or  quarts.  This  makes  a  very  satisfactory  package  in 
which  fruit  carries  well. 

Grapes  are  usually  marketed  in  the  so-called  five  or  ten- 
pound  veneer  basket  which  usually  contains  either  four  or  eight 
pounds.  This  basket  has  a  wooden  cover  which  is  held  down  by 
wire.  Plums  are  usually  marketed  in  baskets  containing  about 
one-half  peck  each.  In  the  Eastern  states  a  package  resembling 
the  grape  basket  is  often  used,  while  in  the  Pacific  Coast  states 
a  basket  that  fits  into  a  case  holding  six  or  eight  of  them  is  a 
favorite.  Peaches  are  shipped  in  much  the  same  packages  as 
plums  although  in  Delaware  round  baskets  are  much  used. 

The  bushel  basket. — In  some  sections  a  favorite  package  for 
marketing  apples,  pears  and  quinces  is  the  bushel  basket  with 
a  cover.  While  this  does  very  well  for  local  use  it  is  too  waste- 
ful of  space  in  packing  cars  to  warrant  its  general  use.  It  is, 
however,  a  popular  package  with  the  purchaser  as  it  is  useful 
to  him  and  he  is  willing  to  pay  something  for  it,  while  the  box 
package  is  regarded  by  the  purchaser  as  being  of  no  value. 

The  bushel  box  is  the  popular  fruit  package  in  many  of 
the  Western  states  and  has  given  excellent  returns.  For  fancy 
fruit,  it  is  an  excellent  package,  but  for  fruit  of  ordinary  grades 
it  is  probably  not  as  good  as  the  barrel,  as  the  cost  of  the  pack- 


140  POPULAR   FRUIT    GROWING. 

age  and  packing  is  much  more  than  where  barrels  are  used. 
Much  fancy  fruit  from  the  Western  states  is  wrapped  in  paper 
before  it  is  packed  and  is  then  put  in  the  boxes  in  layers  by 
hand.  Of  course  such  fruit  ships  and  keeps  better  than  fruit  not 
so  carefully  handled.  The  box  enables  a  better  display  to  be 
made  of  the  fruit  and  supplies  a  handy  package  for  the  retailer. 

Methods  of  Packing. — There  are  two  methods  or  styles  of 
placing  apples  in  these  boxes  in  general  use,  known  as  the 
straight  and  diagonal  packs.  In  the  straight  pack  the  apples  are 
placed  in  straight  rows,  both  lengthwise  and  across  the  box. 
The  straight  pack  is  not  used  where  the  diagonal  can  be  used 
as  the  apples  are  more  apt  to  be  bruised  in  pressing  and  putting 
the  cover  on. 

There  are  various  ways  of  arranging  the  apples  in  the  box  in 
the  straight  pack  as  well  as  the  other  kinds.  Some  place  the 
apple  on  the  side,  others  with  the  stem  up,  and  others  with  the 
stem  down.  Probably  the  best  packs  are  those  arranged  with  the 
stems  to  the  outside  in  the  top  and  bottom  layers. 

The  term  tier  is  used  to  designate  the  number  of  rows  across 
the  top  and  the  number  of  rows  deep.  The  number  of  rows 
across  times  the  number  of  rows  deep  times  the  number  of  tiers 
long  gives  the  number  of  apples  in  the  box.  The  number  of 
tiers,  of  course,  depends  on  the  size  of  the  apples.  The  up-to- 
date  packer  now  stamps  either  the  number  of  tiers,  or  the  num- 
ber of  apples  contained  in  the  box  on  the  outside  so  that  the 
buyer  may  know  at  a  glance  how  many  apples  he  has  in  the  box. 

Diagonal  Pack. — In  the  diagonal  or  diamond  pack  the  rows 
run  diagonally  with  the  edge  of  the  box.  Its  advantage  over 
other  packs  is  that  it  accommodates  sizes  that  do  not  work 
into  the  straight  pack  and  also  that  in  pressing  the  apples  can 
adjust  themselves  to  the  spaces  between  the  apples  in  the  adjoin- 
ing tiers.  The  diagonal  pack  contains  the  half  tiers,  such  as 
three  and  one-half  and  four  and  one-half.  These  allow  an  easy 
pack  for  many  apples  that  would  not  go  in  the  straight  pack. 

The  diagonal  pack  is  started  by  putting  in  two  or  three 
apples  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner  and  then  building  the  lower 
layer  from  these.  Experience  is  needed  before  one  can  do  this 
well. 


HARVESTING,  MARKETING  AND  STORING  FRUIT.       141 


Grading. — The  apples  should  be  graded  by  an  experienced 
grader  and  placed  on  the  packing  table  ready  for  the  packer.  A 
mechanical  grader,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  is  useful  until 
one  is  able  to  judge  the  size  of  an  apple  readily.  The  holes  in 
the  grading  board  may  be  of  the  following  diameters:  21/4, 


Fig.  67. — Methods  of  packing  apples  in  boxes.  Numbers  show  order  in 
which  first  fruits  are  placed  in  the  boxes.  At  left,  4  tier  straight 
pack;  at  right,  3V2  tier  diagonal  pack. 


Fig.  68. — Handy  board  for  grading  apples  into  sizes  for  packing.  The 
figures  in  the  openings  show  the  diameter  of  the  holes  in  inches, 
while  the  figures  below  show  the  corresponding  packs. 


142 


POPULAR   FRUIT    GROWING. 


2%,  3%  and  3%  inches  respectively.  (This  is  for  the  standard 
apple  box.)  Apples  which  go  through  the  3%  inch  hole  and  over 
the  3%  inch  hole  are  3%  tier  apples;  through  3%  and  over  the  2% 
inch  are  4  tier;  through  2%  and  over  2%  inch  are  4%  tier,  and 
through  2%  and  over  2*4  inch  are  5  tier.  If  the  use  of  the  holes 
results  in  sizes  averaging  a  trifle  too  small  for  a  tight  pack  they 
can  readily  be  cut  a  little  larger. 

In  some  local  markets  it  is  customary  to  sell  a  large  amount 
of  choice  fruit  in  a  return  package  which  is  not  covered.  Such 
boxes  present  a  much  improved  appearance  if  the  fruit  is  faced 
down  and  packed  in  layers.  This  is  done  by  taking  off  the  bot- 


Fig.    69. — Fruit  press  for  packing1  bushel  boxes,    a. — Box  in  place  with 

cover  ready  for  nailing,     b. — Foot  lever. 

torn,  placing  the  box,  bottom  end  up . on  a  small  shutter  and  then 
putting  in  the  fruit  in  layers.  The  bottom  boards  are  then 
nailed  on  and  the  box  turned  upright.  A  box  packed  in  layers 
will  hold  considerably  more  than  one  in  which  the  fruit  is  poured 
in. 

In  packing  apples  and  pears  in  boxes  for  shipment  to  distant 
markets,  some  pressure  must  be  applied  to  insure  the  fruit 
being  solid  and  firm  in  the  boxes.  This  is  generally  given  by 
springing  on  the  head  boards,  which  leaves  the  top  bulging. 


HARVESTING,  MARKETING  AND  STORING  FRUIT.    143 

When  packed  in  a  car,  such  packages  should  lie  on  their  sides 
and  be  held  in  place  by  the  use  ef  strips  of  wood  between  each 
tier  of  boxes. 

Fruit  packing  material  is  generally  bought  by  the  grower 
all  cut  out  ready  to  put  together.  For  many  of  the  small  pack- 
ages, a  wire  stitching  machine  is  used  in  putting  them  together. 
Barrels  are  generally  bought  in  the  crate  and  set  up  in  a  local 


Fig.   70. — Sorting  table  for  fruit  packed  In  boxes. 

cooper  shop.  Box  material  is  generally  handled  in  the  same 
way.  By  purchasing  it  in  this  way  and  putting  it  together  him- 
self the  grower  can  often  utilize  his  spare  labor  to  advantage. 

Barrels  are  commonly  used  for  marketing  apples  and  some- 
times for  pears.  This  package  is  preferred  for  apples  in  most 
gi:  the  Eastern  markets,  and  especially  when  the  fruit  is  some- 


144  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

what  inferior  in  quality,  or  when  low  in  price.  It  is  probably 
best  to  always  market  the  extra  choice  apples  in  boxes. 

Formerly  there  was  a  great  difference  in  the  size  of  barrels 
used  for  packing  apples  and  this  fruit  came  to  market  in  barrels 
holding  scarcely  two  and  a  half  bushels,  while  sugar  barrels, 
which  hold  nearly  four  bushels,  were  occasionally  used.  This 
worked  in  various  ways  to  make  the  marketing  of  apples  a  very 
loose  matter.  To  help  overcome  this  difficulty,  the  National  Ap- 
ple Shippers'  association  adopted  a  standard  size  for  apple  bar- 
rels. According  to  these  requirements  a  standard  barrel  must 
have  a  head  nys  inches  in  diameter;  a  stave  28%  inches  in 
length  and  a  bulge  of  not  less  than  64  inches  outside  measure- 
ment. This  size  of  barrel  is  by  law  the  standard  barrel  in  New 
York  state  for  the  marketing  of  apples,  pears,  quince  and  pota- 
toes. The  standard  Missouri  barrel  is  nearly  identical. 

How  to  pack  a  barrel  of  apples. — Select  a  clean  barrel.  If 
second  hand  barrels  are  to  be  used,  such  as  flour  barrels,  they 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  washing  and  rubbing.  If  this 
is  not  done,  the  fruit  is  apt  to  look  dusty  when  opened  which 
will  detract  from  its  sale.  Under  such  conditions  some  packers 
follow  the  plan  of  lining  the  barrels  with  newspapers  or  other 
cheap  paper  which  is  an  excellent  plan.  Ordinarily,  new  barrels 
are  used.  Sometimes  a  circular  piece  of  paper  is  put  on  each 
end.  The  barrel  being  placed  before  the  packer  with  the  bottom 
out  and  the  head  down,  the  packer  puts  about  a  half  bushel  of 
apples  in  the  bottom  and  proceeds  to  turn  them  so  that  the 
stem  end  faces  the  head,  i.  e.  downwards.  Two  layers  are  gen- 
erally faced  in  the  case  of  fruit  of  first  quality  but  for  ordinary 
fruit,  one  layer  of  facing  fruit  is  enough.  When  these  are  in,  the 
barrel  is  filled  by  pouring  in  the  sorted  fruit  from  a  basket  that 
is  put  down  in  the  barrel  before  it  is  emptied  so  as  to  avoid  the 
le,ast  chance  of  bruising  the  fruit.  For  this  purpose  a  half-bushel 
basket  with  a  swinging  bale  is  best.  As  each  basketful  is  put 
in,  the  barrel  is  gently  shaken  so  as  to  settle  the  fruit  but  not 
enough  to  bruise  it.  When  the  barrel  is  nearly  full,  a  layer  of 
apples  is  put  on  with  the  stem  end  up.  This  layer  should  stand 
up  out  of  the  barrel  two  inches  or  more.  The  chime  hoops  are 
then  loosened  a  little  and  the  outside  one  taken  off,  but  not  ir<e 


HARVESTING,  MARKETING  AND  STORING  FRUIT.     145 


second  hoop,  as  this  would  allow  the  barrel  to  spread  too  much. 
A  head  is  then  put  on  under  a  barrel  press  and  is  slowly  forced 
into  the  barrel.  While  the  pressure  is  being  applied  a  few  well 
directed  strokes  with  a  hammer  directs  the  head  into  place,  when 
the  chime  hoop  is  driven  down  and  a  few  nails  are  put  in  to 
hold  the  head  in  place  while  the  press  is  removed.  The  outside 
chime  hoop  is  put  on  and  nailed  in  place  and  then-  the  lining 
hoops  are  nailed  fast.  The  barrel  is  then  turned  over  and  sten- 
cilled on  the  end  that  was  downward  but  is  now  the  top. 

A  package  thus  packed  opens  up  with  a  nice  show  of  evenly 
packed  apples  and  makes  a  good  appearance.  The  necessity  of 
pressing  in  the  apples  arises  from  the  fact  that  otherwise  the 
apples  will  shake  in  the  barrel  when  it  is  moved  and  will  bruise. 

A  properly  pack- 
ed barrel  has  no 
movement  of  its 
contents.  There 
is  considerable 
bruising  of  the 
fruit  where  the 
pressure  is  ap- 
plied but  such 
bruises  are  not 
often  injurious. 

Barrel    press. 
— There   are   sev- 

U  V 

Fig.   71 — Packing  presses   for  apples,     a.-—      eral  kinds  of  bar 
Foot   press,     b. — Screw  press.  rej       presses       in 

common  use.  Presses  illustrated  in  figure  71  are  the  forms  com- 
monly obtained  from  the  implement  dealers.  Where  such  a  press 
cannot  be  conveniently  obtained,  a  very  good  one  may  be  made 
by  any  blacksmith  by  using  an  ordinary  bench  screw  for  applying 
the  pressure. 

Grades  of  fruit.— For  the  most  successful  handling  of  fruit 
there  is  nothing  more  important  than  proper  grading.  Even  grades 
of  fruit  that  can  be  depended  upon  soon  establish  for  a  shipper 
a  reputation  that  is  of  great  advantage  to  him  in  marketing  his 
product.  The  grades  of  fruit  are  variously  designated.  It  is 


146  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

generally  customary  to  mark  the  choicest  fruit  with  the  words 
"Choice,"  "Select,"  or  "Fancy,"  but  other  special  marks  are 
used.  The  next  grading  is  generally  "First  Quality",  "A-l,"  or 
"AA.1  The  lower  grade  may  be  marked  "A"  or  "2nds,"  or 
for  the  various  grades  one  or  more  "X's"  may  be  used.  It  is 
seldom  that  more  than  three  grades  are  made.  In  seasons  when 
prices  are  low  it  will  often  be  found  unprofitable  to  ship  fruit 
of  third  quality. 

Every  shipper  should  put  his  name  on  his  fruit  package  to 
indicate  his  responsibility  for  its  contents.  In  this  way  a  ship- 
per's product  comes  to  be  known  and  fairly  valued,  which  is 
an  advantage  to  him  as  well  as  to  the  dealer  and  consumer. 

For  grading  apples  and  pears,  the  Ontario  Fruit  Growers 
association  has  adopted  the  following  standards  which  gives  a 
good  idea  of  what  such  grades  should  consist  of: 

1.  X  A  No.   1.     Sound  apples   or  pears  of  uniformly  large 
size  and  high  color  for  the  variety  named;   of  normal  form;  at 
least  ninety  per  cent,  free  from  worm  holes,  scabs  or  other 
defects. 

2.  A  No.  1.     Sound  apples  or  pears  of  nearly  uniform  size 
and  good  color  for  the  variety  named;  of  normal  form;  at  least 
ninety  per  cent  free  from  worm  holes,  scabs  or  other  defects. 

3.  No.    1.     Sound    apples    or   pears   of   fairly   uniform   size; 
at  least  eighty  per  cent,  free  from  worm  holes,  scabs  or  other 
defects. 

4.  No.   2.    Apples   or   pears   that  are   disqualified  from  be- 
ing classed  under  any  of  the  aforementioned  grades,  but  which 
are  useful  for  culinary  purposes,  and  not  less  than  two  inches 
in  diameter. 

Storage   and   Storage   Buildings. 

It  is  a  common  fault,  at  least  with  growers  of  late  keeping 
varieties  of  apples,  that  they  are  often  too  quick  to  sell  their 
product  and  in  consequence  stand  in  their '  own  light  in  the 
matter  of  getting  the  best  returns  from  their  labor.  As  a  rule, 
it  is  unwise  for  the  apple  grower  to  sell  late-keeping  apples 
from  the  orchard.  It  is  generally  far  better  to  wait  until  those 
who  wish  to  rush  their  fruit  to  market  have  disposed  of  it  be- 
fore selling.  If  the  grower  sells  his  product  as  it  is  picked, 


HARVESTING,  MARKETING  AND  STORING  FRUIT.     147 

he  has  to  look  after  his  harvesting  and  marketing  at  the  same 
time,  which  is  apt  to  crowd  him  and  his  facilities  to  his  disad- 
vantage. Of  course,  in  order  to  store  fruit  properly,  the  grower 
must  study  the  keeping  quality  of  his  product  and  be  equipped 
with  cool  storage  so  that  he  can  hold  it  for  at  least  a  few  weeks. 
Such  facilities  are  an  incentive  to  the  grower  to  give  extra  at- 
tention to  the  fruit  he  raises,  as  only  good  fruit  can  be  stored 
to  advantag-e.  The  inferior  fruit,  if  to  be  marketed  at  all, 
should  generally  be  disposed  of  early. 

Cold  storage  apparatus  of  the  modern  improved  form  is  too 
expensive   for   general  use   by  individual   fruit  growers   and   it 


Fig.  72.  —Kansas   Cold   Storage  House;    longitudinal   section. 


is  a  question  whether  it  is  not  usually  best,  when  fruit  is  to 
be  stored  for  a  considerable  time,  for  the  grower  to  patronize 
the  owners  of  cold  storage  plants  rather  than  build  for  his  own 
use  or,  better  yet,  co-operate  with  others  and  erect  a  large, 
modern,  fruit  storage  building. 

Cooling  rooms  adapted  to  the  storage  of  small  fruit  and 
other  quickly  perishable  products,  even  for  a  short  time,  could 
be  used  to  advantage  on  every  fruit  farm.  These  need  not  be 
expensive  and  often  an  old  building  may  be  refitted  and  made 


148  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

to  answer  the  purpose.  The  chief  requirements  are  to  arrange 
for  thorough  insulation  against  outside  changes  of  temperature. 
This  can  be  most  satisfactorily  arranged  by  the  use  of  dead 
air  spaces  and  building  paper.  There  should  be  at  least  two 
well  constructed  dead  air  spaces  about  the  storage  room.  These 
dead  air  spaces  should  be  made  in  the  floor  and  roof  as  well  as 
in  the  walls.  The  windows,  if  such  are  found  necessary,  should 
consist  of  at  least  three  sash  set  closely  together  so  as  to  make 
two  tight  dead  air  spaces  between. 

It  will  be  found  that  rooms  above  ground,  surrounded  by 
well  made  dead  air  spaces,  are  more  satisfactory  for  cooling 
fruit  than  cellars  even  if  the  latter  are  provided  with  proper 
insulation.  The  cost  of  properly  fitting  up  a  cellar  as  a  cool- 
ing room  is  nearly  or  quite  as  expensive  as  the  fitting  up  of  a 
similar  space  above  ground  and  the  wood  and  other  materials 
used  in  its  construction  are  short  lived.  The  stone,  cement  or 
brick  walls  used  ordinarily  in  cellars  are  good  conductors  of 
heat  and  among  the  poorest  of  materials  for  the  walls  of  a 
storage  room. 

A  fruit  grower  provided  with  a  well  insulated  fruit  room 
will  often  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  lower  its  temperature  by 
the  use  of  ice  early  in  the  season.  Figs.  72  and  73  show  a  good 
method  of  constructing  a  fruit  storage  house  large  enough  to 
hold  a  few  carloads  of  apples,  with  provision  for  the  use  of  ice 
for  reducing  the  temperature.  The  building  is  designed  to  be 
located  on  a  hillside  of  such  a  slope  that  the  first  floor  will  be 
on  the  level  of  the  surface  at  one  end  and  the  second  floor  a 
few  feet  above  the  surface  at  the  other.  The  building  is  18  by  38 
feet,  interior  measurement,  two  stories  in  height  and  divided 
into  four  rooms,  two  on  each  floor.  On  the  second  floor  is  the 
ice-storage  room,  18  by  21  feet,  in  which  the  future  supply  of  ice 
Is  stored,  and  the  ice  chamber,  15  by  16  feet,  in  which  is  held 
the  ice  that  cools  the  refrigerating  room  directly  below.  A 
door  in  the  ice  chamber  communicates  with  the  outside.  This 
is  for  the  unloading  of  ice  and  is  the  only  outside  entrance  into 
the  second  story.  The  refrigerating  room  is  16  by  18  feet,  and 
Is  the  compartment  in  which  the  temperature  is  to  be  reduced, 
and  in  which  perishable  products  are  to  be  stored.  Leading 


HARVESTING,  MARKETING  AND  STORING  FRUIT.     149 

into  this  room  is  the  cooling  room,  18  by  21  feet,  which  is  to  be 
used  as  a  general  purpose  storage  cellar.  A  small  entrance 
room  protects  the  doorway  into  the  cooling  room.  This  is  the 
only  entrance  to  the  ground  floor. 

The  flooring  is  laid  tight  in  the  storage  room  and  provided 
with  a  slope  towards  the  center.  A  gutter  catches  the  drainage 
and  carries  it  into  the  gutter  from  the  ice  chamber.  To  prevent 


Fig.   73  — Kansas   Cold   Storage  House,     a. — Vertical  section,   b. — De- 
tails of  construction. 

leakage  the  floor  of  the  storage  room  must  have  a  sheet  iron 
covering.  The  floor  of  the  ice  chamber  is  laid  with  2  by  4-inch 
lumber  with  1-inch  space  between.  This  provides  for  air  cir- 
culation and  water  drainage.  A  sloping  catch  floor  leads  the 
water  into  the  gutter  which  carries  it  down  and  out  through  the 
cooling  room. 


150  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Cellars  and  caves  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  for  stor- 
ing apples.  Such  storage  is  cheap  and  easily  obtained.  They 
are  only  useful  for  this  purpose  during  cold  weather.  When 
properly  handled  apples  keep  well  in  them. 


QUESTIONS— CHAPTER  IX. 

1.  Why  does  so  much  depend  upon  the  picking  of  the  fruit  for 
the  market? 

2.  What  effect  does  the  wide  distribution  of  fruit  growing  sec- 
tions have  upon  the  market? 

3.  What  is  the  proper  time  for  picking  different  fruits? 

4.  When  is  local  peddling  a  success? 

5.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  commissioner  to  the  fruit  grower? 

6.  Of  what   value   are    fruit  growers   associations   to    the   small 
fruit  grower? 

7.  What  is  the  advisability  of  using  the  return  package? 

8.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  packages  for  selling  the  same 
kind  of  fruit  uniform  in  size? 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  packages  prescribed  by  law? 

10.  How  are  small  fruits  generally  marketed? 

11.  What  is  the  standard  marketing  package  for  grapes? 

12.  How  are  plums  and  peaches  marketed? 

13.  What  is  the  popular  package  for  apples,  pears  and  quince? 

14.  How  are  ordinary  grades  packed?    The  fancy  grades? 

15.  What  is  the  size  of  the  standard  apple  barrel? 

16.  How  should  a  barrel  be  packed? 

17.  What  is  a  barrel  press? 

18.  What  are  the  advantages  of  grading  the  fruit  properly? 

19.  How  should  they  be  designated? 

20.  What  are  the   Ontario  Fruit  Growers  standards   for  grading 
apples  and  pears? 

21.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  a  cold  storage 
plant? 

22.  How  may  inexpensive  cooling  rooms  be  fitted  up? 

23.  Why  are  cooling  rooms  above  ground  more  satisfactory  and 
economical  than  those  in  cellars? 


CHAPTER  X. 

PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS. 

Our  cultivated  fruits,  with  a  few  unimportant  exceptions, 
do  not  come  true  from  seed,  and  hence,  must  be  increased  by 
division.  The  various  ways  in  which  seed  enters  into  the  sub- 
ject of  the  propagation  of  fruits  are  as  follows: 

Propagation  by  Seed. 

(1).  Seed  is  used  for  the  growing  of  stocks  on  which  to 
work  (i.  e.,  graft  or  bud)  cultivated  fruits  such  as  apples,  pears, 
plums,  peaches  and  others. 

(2).  Seed  is  used  for  growing  a  few  varieties  of  the  peach 
and  strawberry  that  come  nearly  true  from  seed,  such  as  the 
Alpine  and  St.  Anthony  de  Padua  strawberries  and,  in  the  case 
of  the  peach,  for  a  large  number  of  varieties  which  come  suffi- 
ciently true  to  name  for  home  use. 

Some  of  the  conditions  which  influence  germination  of  such 
seeds  are  as  follows: 

(a)  Seeds  of  many  species  which  ripen  in  the  early  sum- 
mer, such  as  those  of  the  strawberry,  gooseberry  and  raspberry, 
if   sown  at   once,  will   start  quickly.     Seedlings   of  such  kinds 
should  be  wintered  over  in  a  cold  frame,  greenhouse  or  cold 
cellar.    If  the  seed  is  dried  it  should  be  stratified  towards  the 
end  of  winter  and  frozen  and  sown  in  the  spring.     In  the  case 
of   the   raspberry   and    gooseberry,   the   seedlings    are   so   small 
at  the  end  of  the  first  season,  if  the  seed  is  sown  as  soon  as 
ripe,  that  it  is  generally  best  to  dry  it  and  sow  the  following 
spring. 

(b)  Seeds  that  ripen  in  late  summer   should  be  stratified 
and  sown  the  following  spring. 

(c)  Stratification   refers   to   the    mixing   of   seeds   with   soil 
or  other  material  and  burying  out  of  doors.    It  is  a  common  and 
very  safe  way  of  keeping  over  winter  such  seeds  as  those  of 
the  peach,  plum,  apricot,  nuts  and  many  forest  tree  seeds.     All 
of  our  hardy  seeds  may  be  treated  in  this  way  successfully.     In 
practice  the  seeds  are  mixed  generally  in  sand,  but  sometimes 


152 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


leaf  mold  or  fresh,  moist  leaves  are  used  for  this  purpose. 
Where  only  small  quantities  are  cared  for,  boxes  are  generally 
used,  which  are  left  out  doors  in  winter;  but  where  large  quanti- 
ties of  large  seeds  like 
those  of  the  peach  and 
black  walnut  are  used,  they 
are  often  mixed  in  pits  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  covered  with  sod. 

Apple  seed  is  gener- 
ally  kept  dry  during  the 
winter  and  moistened  and 
frozen  in  the  spring  before 
sowing,  but  may  be  stored  over  winter  by  stratification  with  ex- 
cellent results.  In  the  case  of  a  few  plants  the  seed  will  start 
at  once  if  stratified.  In  such  cases  dry  the  seed  and  do  not  sow 
until  spring.  However,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  mix  it  with  damp 
sand  in  the  latter  part  of  winter  for  a  few  weeks,  after  which  it 
may  be  frozen  before  being  sown. 


Fig.   74.— Seed  stratified  In  pit 
and  covered  with  sod. 


Fig.    75. — Boxes    of 


stratified    seeds    at    the    Minnesota    Experiment 
Station   in   Winter. 


Propagation  by  Offsets. 

(a)  The  strawberry  and  red  raspberry,  American  plum,  Mo- 
rello  cherry  and  some  other  fruits  may  be  grown  by  taking  off 
sprouts  that  come  up  from  the  roots.     Such  sprouts  are  termed 
"offsets,"  or  suckers. 

(b)  Offsets  are  best  removed  in  autumn  or  in  the  spring. 
In  removing  them,  it  is  important  to  get  a  portion  of  the  main 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS. 


153 


root  from  which  they  grow.     In  the  case  of  the  plum,  two  or 
three  inches  of  the  main  root  is  sufficient. 
Propagation   by    Layers. 

(a)  The  easiest  and  best  way  of  increasing  many  orna- 
mental as  well  as  fruit 
plants  is  by  layering. 
Spring  layers  are  made  by 
laying  down  any  portion 
of  the  plant  in  the  spring. 

(b)  Summer        layers 
are  made  in  the  summer, 
generally    in    July,     from 
wood  of  the  same  season's 
growth. 

(c)  Mound  layering  is 
used    for   propagating   the 
gooseberry,     currant     and 
quince. 

(d)  Layers     may     be 
made    at    any    time,    al- 
though roots  may  not  form 
for  a  year  or  more. 

(e)  Layers   should   be 
taken  up  wh-en  well  root- 
ed and  dormant.     This  is 
generally  -in    the    autumn 
of  the  first  year  or  in  the 
following  spring. 

(f)  Layering  is  adapted  to  such  fruits  as  the  grape,  cur- 
rant, gooseberry  and  black  raspberry. 
Propagation  by  Cuttings. 

(a)  Various  portions  of  plants  may  be  used  for  propagating 
plants.     Cuttings   may   be   made  of  the   ripened   wood   of  the 
branches  in  the  case  of  the  gooseberry,  currant,  grape,  quince 
and  Kieffer  pear. 

(b)  Cuttings    may   be   made   of  the   roots,   as   in   the   red 
raspberry,   blackberry  and  some  kinds  of  the  Morello  cherries 
and  plums.     Plants   grown  in  this  way  from  cuttings  are  gen- 
erally better  than  those  grown  from  sprouts. 


Fig.    76 — Gooseberry    that    has 
been  mound  layered. 


154  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

(c)  Cuttings  may  be  made  of  the  soft  wood  of  the  sum- 
mer as  in  the  grape,  currant  and  gposeberry  and,  in  the  case 
of  the  strawberry,  they  may  be  made  from  the  immature  offsets. 
Soft  wood  cuttings  need  a  frame  or  greenhouse  for  best  re- 
sults and  should  be  treated  similarly  to  geranium  and  coleus 
cuttings. 

Size  of  Cuttings. 

(a)  The   size   of   the   cuttings   used   in    propagation   varies 
greatly.     All  that  is  absolutely  necessary  is  to  hav-e  one  bud 
to  each  cutting  and  this  will  produce  good  results,   providing 
it  has  the  proper  conditions  of  heat  and  moisture  surrounding 
it.    One-bud  cuttings  are  sometimes  used  for  the  currant  and 
grape  with  good  results,  but  must  have  the  best  of  care. 

(b)  Cuttings  are  generally  made  with  more  than  one  bud 
to   encourage   strong  growth  and  to  increase  their   chance  of 
living. 

Conditions  Necessary  for  the  Successful  Growing  of  Hard- 
wood Cuttings. 

(a)  The  wood  for  ripe  wood   (hardwood)    cuttings  must  be 
well  matured  and  firm.     Such  wood,  if  well  matured,  has  in  it 
plenty  of  food  to  start  the  cuttings  into  growth. 

(b)  The  wood  should  preferably  be  made  up  into  cuttings 
in  autumn  or  early  winter  if  to  go  into  the  open  ground.     If  not 
planted  out  at  once  they  should  be  stored  in  a  cold  cellar,  cave 
or  pit  outdoors.     They  will  often  be  calloused  by  spring  if  thus 
treated.     Cuttings  may  be  of  any  length,  from  one  bud,  up.    It 
is  customary  to  make  cuttings  of  currant  and  gooseberry  about 
eight  inches  long. 

Planting  Cuttings. 

(a)  The  soil  for  cuttings  should  be  rich  in  plant  food,  com- 
pact enough  to  hold  moisture  but  porous   enough  at  the  sur- 
face to  prevent  baking. 

(b)  Cuttings    should    generally   be    calloused   before   plant- 
ing for  best  results,  but  set  out  before  they  show  roots.     It 
is  generally  best  to  get  cuttings  into  the  ground  as  soon  as  the 
spring  weather   permits,   but   do  not   plant   out   grape  cuttings 
until   they   are   calloused.     Currant   cuttings   may  be   made  up 
in  early  autumn  or  even  in  the  last  of  August  and  set  out  at 
once,  as  when  thus  treated  they  will  of  ten -be  rooted  by  winter. 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS. 


155 


Fig.  77.— Cuttings  properly  planted  out. 

(c)  Set  cuttings  deep  so  that  the  upper  bud  will  come  just 
at  the  surface  of  the  ground.     Do  not  have  over  one  inch  of 
long  cuttings  above  ground. 

(d)  Set  the  cuttings  slanting,  i.  e.,  at  an  angle  of  45°  or 
at  half-pitch.     This  is  preferred  to  setting  straight,  as  they  re- 
main  firm   better  when  thus  planted. 

(e)  In  making  cuttings,  plan  to  have  at  least  one  bud  with- 
in one  inch  of  the  top  end. 

The  Solar  Pit. — There  are  many  trees  that  will  not  grow 
from  cuttings  unless  they  have  their  roots  started  a  little  be- 
fore planting.  This  is  most  easily  accomplished  by  what  is 
known  as  "the  solar  pit",  which  owes  its  success  to  the  fact 

that  cuttings  root  first  at 
the  warmer  end.  It  is 
made  and  used  as  follows: 
The  bundles  of  cuttings 
are  heeled-in  as  recom- 
mended. In  the  spring 
they  are  taken  out  and 
buried  close  together  with 

78.— Solar  pit  with   cuttings   tied    the    DUtt    «nds    uppermost 
in  bundles  and  buried.  m     a    warm,     sunny     spot 

and  covered  with  about  six  inches  of  soil.    A  hotbed   frame 
with  sash  is  then  put  over  them  to  warm  the  soil.    Sometimes, 


156  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

instead  of  using  sash,  the  soil  over  the  cuttings  is  covered  with 
a  foot  or  more  of  fermenting  manure.  In  either  case  the  soil 
is  warmed  and  the  formation  of  roots  encouraged.  In  using  the 
solar  pit  the  rooting  process  should  not  be  carried  so  far  as 
to  permit  the  roots  to  show  plainly,  as  they  are  then  liable 
to  be  broken  off  in  planting,  but  the  cuttings  should  be  planted 
out  as  soon  as  they  show  signs  of  healing  over  on  the  butt 
end.  This  healing  over  process  is  called  callousing,  and  in 
many  plants  necessarily  precedes  the  formation  of  roots. 
Graftage. 

Graftage  includes  what  is  commonly  called  budding  and 
grafting.  Working  is  another  term  that  includes  the  same. 
Most  trees  that  graft  easily  will  bud  readily. 

Limits  of  Graftage. — It  is  common  to  hear  surprising  stories 
about  graftage.  Quite  recently  a  prominent  grape  grower 
referred  to  his  efforts  to  graft  the  red  currant  on  the  red 
maple  tree.  Even  Pliny  says  "Some  apples  are  so  red  that 
they  resemble  blood,  which  is  caused  by  their  being  grafted 
on  a  mulberry  stock."  But  budding  or  grafting  are  never  suc- 
cessful unless  the  cion  and  stock  are  nearly  allied,  and  the 
closer  the  relationship  between  them,  the  more  certain  the  suc- 
cess. Lindley  says:  "Varieties  of  the  same  species  unite  most 
freely;  th-en  species  of  the  same  genus;  then  genera  of  the 
same  natural  order,  beyond  which  the  power  does  not  extend. 
For  instance,  pears  work  freely  on  pears,  very  well  on  quinces 
and  mountain  ash;  less  successfully  on  apples  or  thorns,  and 
not  at  all  upon  plums  or  cherries;  while  the  lilac  will  take  on 
the  ash,  because  of  the  near  relationship  between  the  two." 
But  there  are  many  exceptions  to  any  rule  that  could  be  laid 
down  concerning  this  matter.  Some  plants  are  increased  most 
readily  by  budding,  while  others  graft  more  easily  than  they 
are  budded.  The  stone  fruits  are  very  easily  budded  and  graft- 
ing them  is  often  a  much  more  uncertain  process. 

(b)  Stock  is  the  name  applied  to  the  part  grafted  on,  be 
it  large  or  small.    The  stock  may  consist  of  a  cutting,  a  rooted 
layer,  a  tree  or  a  seedling  root  and  it  may  be  worked  when 
either  dormant  or  growing. 

(c)  Cion  is  the  name  of  the  part  inserted.    It  may  con- 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS. 


157 
In 


sist  of  one  or  more  buds  and  be  cut  with  or  without  wood, 
budding,  the  term  bud-stick  is  often  used  to  take  its  place. 

Budding. — In    its   broad    sense    the   term   graftage    includes 
all  there  is  of  budding,  which  is  simply  grafting  while  the  tree 


Fig.  79. — Budding.  1. — Bud-stick  with  one  bud  nearly  re- 
moved. Note  that  cut  is  made  from  below  upwards. 
2. — Two  views  of  bud  after  it  has  been  removed. 
3. — Stock  with  T  cut  made  in  bark  and  flaps  loosened 
to  receive  bud.  4. — Bud  inserted  under  bark.  5. — Bud 
tied  in  place  with  raffia. 

is    growing\but,    as    generally    used,    budding    ap- 
plies to  the  process  by  which  a  bud  of  the  season 
is    removed    from    its    parent    plant    and    induced 
p  to    unite    with    and    grow    upon    some    other    plant 

congenial  to  it.  In  the  Northern  states  it  is  commonly 
practiced  to  propagate  plums  and  other  stone  fruits,  and  ap- 
ples and  pears,  all  of  which  are  readily  increased  in  this  way. 


158  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

The  varieties  of  some  ornamental  trees  and  plants  may  be 
propagated  by  budding,  as,  for  instance,  some  varieties  of  elm, 
maple,  poplar  and  birch.  Most  trees  that  graft  readily  will 
bud  as  readily,  while  others  that  will  graft  with  difficulty  will 
bud  very  easily.  Budding  is  rather  a  simpler  operation  than 
grafting  and  easier  for  the  beginner  to  perform  successfully. 

Stocks  for  budding  are  generally  grown  from  seed  and  the 
buds  are  inserted  in  them  when  they  are  but  a  few  years  old, 
and  as  near  the  ground  as  possible.  But  budding  may  be  done 
very  successfully  on  any  growing  branch  or  stem  where  the 
bark  is  not  too  hard  and  still  bends  easily.  It  is  often  used  to 
change  the  bearing  qualities  of  fruit  trees  of  small  or  medium 
size. 

Bud-stick  is  the  name  given  to  the  shoots  from  which  the 
buds  are  taken.  It  is  also  referred  to  as  the  cion,  but  the  cion 
proper  is  the  piece  which  is  inserted  in  the  stock. 

Time  for  Budding. — In  a  general  way,  budding  may  be  done 
at  any  time  when  the  bark  will  peel,  providing  the  buds  are 
sufficiently  matured  on  the  new  growth  of  the  season  to  insert 
them.  The  proper  time  will  be  influenced  by  the  kind  of  stock 
used,  the  season,  and  sometimes  by  attacks  of  insects  or  dis- 
eases. For  instance  the  native  plum  is  generally  budded  to 
best  advantage  about  the  last  of  July,  but  should  the  stocks  be 
attacked  by  some  insect  or  disease  that  seriously  injures  the 
foliage  in  the  middle  of  July,  the  growth  of  the  stocks  will 
soon  be  checked  and  the  work  must  be  performed  at  once  or 
not  at  all.  A  period  of  severe  drouth  may  check  the  growth,  and 
in  a  similar  way  make  early  budding  necessary.  If  the  stocks 
are  growing  very  fast,  it  is  often  best  to  delay  the  operation 
until  the  wood  has  become '  somewhat  hardened,  or  else  its 
rapid  growth  may  cover  up  the  inserted  bud.  If  considerable 
pruning  of  the  stocks  is  necessary  to  make  a  place  for  the  bud, 
it  should  be  done  at  least  two  weeks  before  budding  is  com- 
menced, because  the  heavy  pruning  of  any  plant  when  in  ac- 
tive growth  results  in  a  serious  check  to  its  parts.  If  done  just 
when  the  buds  are  inserted,  this  may  prevent  the  success  of 
the  operation.  The  ordinary  season  for  budding  in  the  North- 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS. 


159 


era  states  is  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  first  of  September, 
and  the  earliness  or  lateness  at  which  a  variety  is  most  suc- 
cessfully budded  depends  on  the  condition  of  growth.  The 
stock  that  stops  growing  early  in  the  season  is  budded  early, 
and  those  that  grow  until  autumn  are  budded  late.  The  condi- 
tions for  success  are: 

1.  The  stock  and  cion   must  be  perfectly  healthy  and  free 
from  insects.     If  either  of  them  are  weak  or  sickly,  unsatis- 
factory results  may  be  expected.    To  this  end,  everything  neces- 
sary shoud  be  done  to  keep  off  insects  and  disease. 

2.  The   buds   should   be   well   developed   in   the  axils  of  the 

leaves  on  the 
young  shoots  from 
which  the  buds 
are  to  be  taken. 
It  seldom  h  a  p- 
pens  that  they 
are  in  this  condi- 
tion until  the  bud 
at  the  end  is 
formed,  but  some- 
times the  buds  in 
the  center  of  the 
twigs  will  be 
large  enough  to 
grow,  while  those 
at  the  base  and  at 
the  extreme  tip 
are  still  quite 
small.  If  the  buds 
are  thought  to  be 
too  immature,  they 
may  be  readily 
developed  by 
pinching  off  the 
tips  of  the  twigs.  In  ten  or  twelve  days  after  such  pinching,  of 
even  a  very  soft  shoot,  its  buds  will  be  fit  for  working. 


Fig.  80. — Showing  method  of  cutting  bud 
when  the  wood  is  to  be  removed  from  it. 
b. — Plum  bud  in  the  spring  of  the  year 
before  growth  has  commenced.  c. — A 
shoot  started  from  an  inserted  bud  and 
tied  to  the  stub  of  a  stock.  The  dotted 
line  b  shows  where  the  stock  should  be  cut 
off  after  the  bud  is  well  started. 


160  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

3.  The   bark    must   separate   easily   from   the    wood   on   the 
stocks  to  be  budded.     This  will  take  place  only  when  they  are 
growing  rapidly. 

4.  A  sharp,  thin  knife  is  absolutely  necessary. 

5.  The   work    must   be   done    rapidly,   and   the   buds   firmly 
and  evenly  tied  into  place.     No  wax  is  needed. 

Necessary  implements. — A  common  shoe  knife,  with  the 
corners  rounded  off,  makes  a  very  cheap,  and  yet  a  most  excel- 
lent budding  knife.  There  are  many  specially  designed  forms 
of  knives  for  this  purpose  and  most  of  them  have  an  ivory  point 
or  blade  in  the  base  of  the  handle  for  lifting  the  bark,  but  the 
rounded  corner  of  the  back  of  the  shoe  knife  is  just  as  good  as 
the  best  ivory  blade  for  raising  the  bark.  A  shoe  knife  costs  not 
one-fourth  as  much  as  an  ordinary  budding  knife  and  generally 
holds  an  edge  better. 

Besides  a  shoe  knife,  tying  material  is  necessary.  For 
this  purpose  basswood  bark  is  perhaps  the  best,  since  it  is  but 
little  affected  by  moisture,  and  if  put  on  wet,  remains  tight 
and  close.  This  tying  material  is  prepared  by  soaking  sections 
of  the  bark  of  the  common  basswood  in  water  until  the  inner 
layers  separate  easily.  The  bark  peels  from  the  trees  readily 
in  June  and  July,  and  it  requires  about  three  weeks  of  soaking 
in  stagnant  water  to  get  the  fiber  into  the  right  condition.  Aft- 
er the  layers  readily  separate  the  bark  should  be  stripped  into 
pieces  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide.  If  hard  and  stiff,  it 
may  be  softened  by  rubbing  and  pounding.  Cotton  warp,  conr 
husks  or  woolen  yarn  answer  very  well,  and  a  tying  material 
called  raffia  is  now  used  more  widely  than  any  other  material 
for  budding.  This  is  a  long,  grass-like  material  which  is  used 
for  baskets  and  is  made  from  the  leaves  of  a  palm  known  as 
Raphia  peduncula.  It  should  be  made  into  thin,  very  narrow 
strips  before  being  applied  and  should  be  put  on  dry. 

The  process  of  budding  will  be  found  illustrated  in  figs. 
79  and  80,  showing  the  successive  stages  in  shield  budding, 
which  is  the  form  generally  used  in  this  country.  When  every- 
thing is  ready  for  the  work,  prepare  a  lot  of  bud-sticks  as  showu 
in  fig.  79,  by  cutting  off  all  but  about  one-half  inch  of  the  leal 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS.  161 

Btalks.  These  sticks  should  be  carefully  protected  from  wilting, 
and  it  is  customary  to  carry  them  in  the  field  wrapped  up  in 
moist  cloth  or  oiled  paper.  If  it  is  necessary  to  store  them 
after  they  are  cut,  they  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  moist  place, 
in  moss,  sawdust,  or  cloths,  but  not  in  water.  They  are  often 
kept  for  a  week  before  using,  but  are  preferably  used  as  soon 
as  possible  after  they  are  cut. 

To  insert  the  bud  a  smooth  place  is  selected  (on  small 
stocks  this  should  be  about  two  inches  from  the  ground)  and 
on  the  north  side  if  practicable,  since  buds  are  less  liable  to 
be  injured  by  freezing  on  that  side  than  on  any  other.  A  cross- 
cut should  be  made  at  this  point,  and  from  it  a  cut  about  l1/^ 
inches  long,  as  shown  at  3  in  fig.  79;  at  the  same  time  the  bark 
should  be  raised  to  loosen  it.  A  bud-stick  is  then  taken  and 
a  bud  cut  off  with  the  bark  and  a  thin  piece  of  the  wood  extending 
about  one-half  inch  above  and  below  the  bud,  as  shown  at  2 
in  fig.  79.  The  lower  point  of  the  bud  (by  which  is  meant  the 
bark  and  wood  cut  off,  as  well  as  the  bud)  is  now 
inserted  under  the  bark  at  the  cross-cut,  and  is  gently  pushed 
down  by  the  leaf  stock  and  knife  blade.  If  the  bark  of  the 
stock  will  not  raise  when  the  bud  is  thus  pushed  down,  the 
stock  is  not  in  the  best  condition  for  budding  and  it  will  be 
necessary  to  raise  the  bark  with  the  back  of  the  knife  blade, 
or  with  the  ivory  blade  previously  referred  to,  in  order  to  let 
the  bud  come  into  its  place.  The  sides  of  the  bud  should  come 
under  the  bark,  but  if  the  wound  is  not  large  enough  to  admit 
quite  all  the  bud,  any  small  part  that  may  project  above  the 
cross-cut  should  be  cut  off  by  again  drawing  the  knife  through 
the  cross-cut.  The  bud  must  now  be  securely  and  firmly  tied 
in  place,  taking  care  to  draw  it  down  evenly  and  firmly  and  to 
cover  all  the  wounds  with  tying  material  as  shown  at  5  in  fig. 
79,  but  do  not  cover  the  bud  itself.  In  less  severe  sections, 
the  ties  do  not  need  such  careful  attention  as  here  in  the  North- 
western states,  where  it  is  important  to  tie  very  carefully. 
After  the  bud  is  tied,  the  bands  should  be  watched  so  that  when 
the  growth  of  the  stock  becomes  so  great  that  the  bands  are 
too  tight  for  it — which  is  generally  in  about  a  week — they  may 


162  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

be  loosened.  When  the  bud  is  well  united,  the  band  should  be 
cut  off  altogether.  The  buds  will  generally  unite  in  about  two 
weeks,  but  sometimes  they  will  require  a  longer  time,  and  it 
is  often  desirable  to  leave  the  ties  on  for  some  little  time  after 
this  period.  It  is  a  bad  practice  to  neglect  the  bands  and  al- 
low them  to  severely  cut  into  the  stock. 

The  inserted  buds  should  not  start  at  all  until  the  follow- 
ing spring.  If  they  start  into  growth  the  season  they  are  in- 
serted, they  are  almost  certain  to  be  killed  the  following  win- 
ter. If  the  bark  of  the  inserted  bud  shriv-els,  or  if  it  remains 
fresh  and  the  bud  falls  off,  the  work  is  entirely  lost,  though 
the  stocks  that  have  missed  one  year  may  be  budded  the  next, 
and  even  while  loosening  the  bands  it  may  not  be  too  late  to 
again  bud  those  that  have  failed.  To  make  the  work  more  cer- 
tain, two  buds  are  often  inserted  in  each  stock,  although  only 
one  is  allowed  to  grow. 

In  the  spring,  the  inserted  bud  will  resemble  fig.  80.  Just 
as  the  top  buds  commence  to  swell,  the  budded  stocks  should 
be  cut  off  at  least  one  inch  above  the  inserted  bud,  and  some- 
times seven  or  eight  inches  of  the  old  stock  is  left  above  the 
bud  to  serve  as  a  stake  to  support  the  shoot  starting  from  the 
bud  (fig.  80).  All  the  shoots  that  come  from  the  stock  should 
be  rubbed  off  so  that  all  its  strength  will  go  into  the  inserted 
bud. 

Late  in  the  season  the  stock  should  be  cut  down  to  just 
above  the  bud,  see  the  dotted  line  at  c  in  figure  80.  The  grow- 
ing shoot  should  be  trained  to  a  single  stem  if  its  stock  is  a 
low  one,  so  as  to  make  a  straight  tree.  If  the  root  is  strong, 
the  bud  will  make  a  growth  of  two  to  four  feet  the  first  year. 
Some  kinds  of  trees  readily  take  on  an  upright  form,  while 
others  naturally  grow  very  crooked  and  need  special  care  to 
induce  them  to  grow  straight. 

On  the  approach  of  winter  it  is  a  good  plan  to  draw  the 
earth  up  against  the  buds  as  a  protection,  but  this  cannot  be 
done  when  the  buds  are  more  than  two  or  three  inches  from 
the  ground.  If  the  buds  are  too  high  up  to  allow  this  earthing 
up  from  the  ground,  especially  in  the  case  of  somewhat  tender 
kinds,  some  growers  put  a  very  thin  covering  of  grafting  wax 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS.  163 

around  the  bud,  taking  care  not  to  cover  the  tip  of  the  bud 
more  than  a  very  little.  This  covering  is  a  protection  against 
ice  forming  behind  the  bud  and  from  sudden  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing in  winter.  However,  with  our  hardy  trees  this  precaution 
is  unnecessary. 

June  Budding. — Many  nurserymen  offer  what  they  call 
June-budded  trees  at  low  prices.  These  are  often  small  trees 
that  can  be  easily  sent  by  mail  and  are  made  by  an  operation 
similar  to  common  budding  as  described  herewith  except  that 
the  work  is  done  in  June  and  the  inserted  buds  are  forced 
into  growth  as  soon  as  they  adhere  to  the  stock,  by  cutting  off 
the  latter.  At  the  North  they  make  only  a  small  growth  the 
season  they  are  budded.  The  buds  for  this  purpose  may  be 
hastened  into  maturing  by  pinching  off  the  ends  of  the  shoots 
to  be  used  for  bud-sticks.  For  ordinary  purposes,  nothing  is 
gained  by  budding  in  June  in  the  Northern  states,  for  a  plant 
budded  there  in  August  will  make  as  large,  if  not  a  larger, 
growth  and  as  straight  a  tree  by  the  end  of  the  following  year 
than  a  June-budded  tree  of  the  same  age  will  make  in  its  two 
years  of  growth.  However,  at  the  South,  where  the  growing 
season  is  longer,  June  budding  is  the  favorite  way  of  growing 
peaches  and  plums  which  there  make  a  strong  enough  growth 
the  first  season.  If  they  were  treated  in  the  common  way  as 
used  at  the  North  the  trees  would  be  too  large  for  best  results 
in  transplanting. 

The  wood  is  sometimes  removed  from  the  bud  after  it  is 
cut  off.  This  practice  is  common  in  Europe,  but  in  general 
practice  in  this  country  it  is  left  on.  However,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  cut  the  bud  very  thick,  or  the  large  amount 
of  wood  in  it  will  prevent  its  binding  into  place  smoothly  and 
evenly.  When  the  wood  is  to  be  removed  from  the  bud,  the 
latter  is  cut  off  in  a  little  different  way  from  the  method  de- 
scribed. This  method  is  illustrated  at  a  figure  80.  Two  cuts  are 
made  and  then  by  a  dexterous  twist,  the  bud  and  bark  removed. 
It  is  then  inserted  as  previously  described. 

Other  forms  of  budding  are  used  occasionally  but  in  all 
of  them  the  general  principles  are  the  same  as  those  practiced  in 
shield  budding.  Figure  81  shows  a  form  of  budding  where- 


164 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


in  a  circle  of  bark  is  taken  out  of  the  bud-stick  and  is  inserted 
into  a  stock  or  branch  of  about  the  same  size.  These  are  un- 
usual forms  and  only  used  for  some  special  purpose.  In  bud- 
ding on  the  branches  of  trees,  it  is  generally  best  to  insert  the 
bud  on  the  upper  side,  but  the  place  for  its  insertion  should 
be  governed  by  the  form  of  the  tree.  Budded  trees  are  no  bet- 
ter than  grafted  trees,  but  they  may  be  as  good,  or  perhaps 
worse,  according  to  the  way  in  which  the  work  is  done.  If  the 
buds  and  stocks  are  perfectly  hardy,  as,  for  instance,  when 
our  native  plum  seedlings  are  budded  with  similar  kinds  of 
improved  quality,  as  with  the  DeSoto  plum,  or  native  seedlings, 
then  the  tree  resulting  is  as  good  as  if  root  grafted.  But  if 
the  hardy  kinds  of  apple  are  budded  on  ordinary  seedlings 
which  are  not  hardy,  then  there  is  a  part  of  the  tender  seedling 
which  is  above  ground  and  is  liable  to  be  killed  out  by  cold. 
In  this  case,  the  resulting  tree  would  be 
much  improved  if  the  seedling  root  had  been 
grafted  below  ground  instead  of  being  bud- 
ded above,  so  as  to  have  the  benefit  of  the 
protection  the  ground  affords.  On  the  other 
hand,  where  hardy  trees  are  budded  on  the 
branches  to  change  the  bearing,  the  work 
is  just  as  sure  as  if  grafted.  It  is  foolish, 
then,  to  pay  more  money  for  a  budded  than 
a  grafted  tree. 

Grafting  is  distinguished  from  budding 
by  being  performed  at  a  season  of  the  year, 
generally  in  the  spring,  when  vegetation  is 
dormant — at  least,  when  the  plant  operated 
not    in    full    leaf;    but    there    are    many    exceptions 


Fig.  81.— Meth- 
od used  in 
ring  budding. 


upon    is 

to  such  a  definition,  and  it  might  be  better  to  include 
the  two  subjects  of  budding  and  grafting  under  the  general 
head  of  graftage,  as  they  are  closely  related. 

Stock  is  the  term  used  to  indicate  the  plant  grafted  on, 
whether  large  or  small. 

Cion  is  the  term  used  to  express  the  part  inserted,  of 
whatever  size  or  form  it  may  consist.  These  should  ordinarily 
be  of  the  new,  well  ripened  growth  of  the  season.  If  cions  are 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS.  165 

to  be  used  in  the  spring  they  should  generally  be  cut  late  in 
the  fall,  as  some  kinds  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  winter. 
However,  a  spring-cut  cion  may  often  be  used  successfully,  but 
it  is  not  safe  to  trust  them  if,  when  cut  open,  the  heart  wood 
appears  dark  colored.  Cions  should  not  be  cut  when  frozen. 
They  should  be  stored  in  moist  sawdust  or  sand  in  a  cold  cellar, 
or  buried  in  the  ground  outdoors  during  the  winter.  But  this 
does  not  apply  in  the  case  of  plum  cions,  which  generally  do 
best  when  cut  in  the  spring  as  needed.  ,  Plum  cions  are  stored 
with  difficulty  as  they  quite  often  lose  their  buds  in  storage. 
Cherry  cions  are  most  safely  carried  through  the  winter  when 
packed  in  moist  Leaves.  If  packed  in  sand  or  sawdust,  they 
sometimes  become  water  soaked. 


Fig.    82. — Tools    used    in    grafting    and    budding:      1.— Budding    knife. 
2.— Grafting   knife.      3.— Grafting    chisel.      4.— Club   mallet. 

The  principles  which  underlie  grafting  are  the  same  as  in 
budding,  i.  e.,  the  cions  and  stock  must  be  closely  related;  the 
work  must  be  done  in  such  a  manner  that  the  inside  bark  of 
both  cion  and  stock  come  closely  in  contact;  and  at  a  season 
of  the  year,  and*  under  such  circumstances  that  they  may  unite 
at  once,  or  as  soon  as  growth  starts.  The  success  of  the  opera- 
tion largely  depends  (1)  on  having  the  stock  and  cion  perfectly 
healthy;  (2)  in  selecting  the  proper  season,  which  varies  some- 


166  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

what  with  the  different  plants;  (3)  in  getting  a  perfect  union 
of  the  inner  bark  of  cion  and  stock  at  least  on  one  side;  (4) 
in  making  all  the  cuts  with  a  sharp  knife,  that  the  parts  in 
contact  may  have  a  smooth  surface;  (5)  in  doing  the  work 
rapidly,  so  that  the  surface  may  not  be  exposed. 

Grafting  wax  is  generally  used  for  covering  the  wounds 
made  in  some  kinds  of  grafting.  A  good  grafting  wax  is  one 
that  will  not  become  too  soft  in  summer,  so  as  to  melt  and  run 
down  the  stock,  or  so  hard  in  winter  as  to  crack  and  split  off. 
A  very  reliable  grafting  wax  is  made  by  melting  together  resin, 
four  (4)  parts,  by  weight;  beeswax,  two  (2)  parts;  tallow,  one 
(1)  part.  When  well  melted,  pour  into  a  pail  of  cold  water, 
grease  the  hands  slightly  and  pull  the  wax  until  it  is  about  the 
color  of  pulled  molasses  candy.  Make  into  balls  and  store  for 
use.  This  wax  should  be  warmed  when  applied.  If  it  is  too 
hard,  more  tallow  and  less  resin  may  be  used.  Some  propaga- 
tors use  linseed  oil  instead  of  tallow.  The  linseed  oil  should 
be  pure.  If  adulterated  with  cottonseed  oil,  the  wax  becomes 
very  stringy  and  difficult  to  handle. 

Clay  is  frequently  used  for  covering  wounds  made  by  graft- 
ing, and  it  gives  quite  as  good  results  as  any  of  the  waxes,  if 
properly  applied,  but  is  not  so  convenient.  For  this  purpose 
some  very  tenacious  clay  should  be  used,  and  it  is  thought  to 
be  improved  when  mixed  with  about  one-third  fresh  cow  dung 
and  a  little  plasterer's  hair.  The  whole  mass  should  be  thor- 
oughly worked  over  and  kneaded  before  using. 

Cleft  grafting  is  very  common  and  more  universally  known 
and  used  than  any  other.  It  is  commonly  performed  to  change 
the  variety  of  apple,  plum  and  various  other  trees  and  plants. 
It  is  generally  the  most  practical  method  to  use  on  branches 
one  or  two  inches  in  diameter  or  larger,  but  it  also  works  well 
on  small  stocks. 

Cleft  grafting  is  performed  as  follows:  The  place  selected 
for  the  insertion  of  the  cion  should  be  where  the  grain  of 
the  wood  is  straight.  The  stock  is  then  cut  square  off  with  a 
sharp  saw  and  is  split  through  its  center,  with  the  grafting 
chisel,  to  a  depth  sufficient  to  allow  the  cion  to  be  put  in  place 
The  cleft  is  held  open  by  the  grafting  chisel  until  the  cion 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS, 


167 


Fig.  83. — The  cleft  graft.  1. — Side  view  of  cion  cut  for  grafting. 
The  opposite  side  is  cut  in  the  same  manner,  making  the  lower 
end  wedge  shaped.  2. — The  stub  with  the  cions  inserted  in  the 
cleft.  3. — The  graft  waxed.  4. — Cloth  wrapped  over  the  wax. 
5. — Diagram  of  cross  section  of  stub  with  cions  inserted.  Note 
that  the  cion  is  inserted  in  such  a  manner  that  its  cambium  layer 
comes  in  contact  with  the  cambium  layer  of  the  stock.  Note 
also  that  the  cion  is  cut  in  such  a  manner  that  the  side  nearest 
the  center  of  the  stub  is  a  little  thinner,  thus  permitting  the 
cleft  to  pinch  down  closely  onto  the  cion  where  the  cambium  \a 
located. 


168  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

is  cut  and  inserted,  when  it  is  withdrawn,  allowing  the  stock  to 
close  on  the  cion  and  so  hold  it  in  place.  If  the  stock  does  not 
spring  back  so  as  to  hold  the  cion  firmly,  it  should  be  tightly 
drawn  together  with  a  string.  The  number  of  cions  inserted 
will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  stock.  If  the  stock  is  not  over 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  one  cion  is  enough  to  in- 
sert, but  on  larger  stocks  one  may  be  put  in  each  side  of  the 
cleft.  All  the  cut  surfaces,  including  the  ends  of  the  cion,  should 
now  be  covered  with  wax,  as  shown  in  fig.  83. 

The  cion  to  be  inserted  in  cleft  grafting  should  be  cut 
wedge-shaped  lengthwise  and  its  cross-section  should  also  be 
wedge-shaped.  Fig.  83  represents  a  cross-section  through  a 
newly  made  graft,  showing  cleft  in  the  stock  and  two  cions 
in  place  (note  how  the  edges  of  the  wood  come  together).  Fig.. 
83  also  shows  the  successive  stages  in  cleft  grafting. 

Whip  grafting  is  illustrated  in  fig.  84.  When  finished,  all 
the  cut.  surfaces  should  be  covered  with  grafting  wax  or  waxed 
paper.  In  this  form  of  grafting  it  is  seldom  that  the  in- 
ner barks  come  together  on  more  than  one  side  of  the  cion 
and  stock.  It  is  a  method  that  is  very  quickly  performed  by 
one  accustomed  to  it,  but  its  use  is  limited  to  branches  or  stems 
under  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  for  stocks  com- 
ing within  this  limit,  it  is  very  convenient  and  reliable.  It  is 
much  used  by  nurserymen  in  root-grafting  apple,  pear  and 
plum  seedlings.  It  is  done  to  a  large  extent  during  the  win- 
ter months,  when  but  little  can  be  accomplished  out  of  doors. 

Root-grafting. — Seedlings,  which  are  dug  in  autumn  and 
packed  in  sawdust  or  moss  in  a  cold  cellar,  are  taken  as  need- 
ed, to  a  warm  room  and  cions  grafted  upon  them  just  be- 
low the  collar,  i.  e.,  the  place  where  the  root  and  top  are  joined, 
where  only  one  graft  is  made  to  a  root.  The  kind  of  graft  made 
is  illustrated  in  fig.  84  which  shows  the  successive  stages  of 
the  work.  A  common  practice  among  nurserymen  is  to  use  a 
cion  about  sfx  inches  long  and  insert  it  on  a  root  about  three 
inches  long,  the  treatment  in  every  respect  being  the  same  as 
where  only  one  graft  is  made  up  from  each  root.  In  each  case, 
when  completed,  the  union  is  wrapped  with  a  strip  of  paper 
or  cloth  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide  which  has  previously 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS. 


169 


been  covered  with!  grafting  wax.  Some  prefer  waxed  string  for 
this  covering.  The  cion  should  be  at  least  five  inches  long 
to  allow  the  graft  to  be  set  deep  and  thus  encourage  rooting 
from  the  cion.  When  completed,  they  should  be  tied  in  bundles 
and  put  away,  packed  in  boxes  very  firmly  in  clean  sand  or 


Pig-.  84. — Root  grafting,  a. — Apple  root  such  as  is  used  in  root 
grafting1,  b. — Cion.  c. — Cion  and  root  prepared  for  putting  to- 
gether, d. — The  graft  made.  e. — The  graft  wrapped  with  waxed 
paper. 

sawdust,  in  a  cold  cellar.  Early  in  the  spring  they  should  be 
planted  in  the  nursery,  about  six  inches  apart,  in  rows  three 
feet  apart,  setting  all  but  the  upper  bud  of  the  cion  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  important  to  plant  the  cion  deep 
so  as  to  encourage  it  to  throw  out  roots,  as  the  trees  are  then 


170  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

more  hardy  than  when  they  depend  entirely  on  the  seedling  root 
for  support.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  soil  very 
firm  and  solid  around  the  base  of  the  root  and  at  the  union. 
This  may  be  secured  in  several  ways.  Some  nurserymen  use 
a  large  dibber,  having  a  guard  on  the  side  to  prevent  its  go- 
ing too  deep.  With  this  a  hole  is  made  sufficiently  wide  and 
deep  to  permit  the  insertion  of  the  graft  easily  so  that  not  more 
than  one  or  two  buds  project  above  the  ground.  To  do  this 
work  most  expeditiously,  the  grafts  should  all  be  of  the  same 
length  and  free  from  side  branches.  Two  persons  should  work 
together,  a  man  who  uses  the  dibber  and  a  boy  who  carries  the 
grafts.  The  man  makes  a  hole  with  the  dibber,  the  boy  puts 
in  a  graft,  when  the  man  immediately  makes  another  hole  by 
the  side  of  and  two  inches  away  from  that  containing  the  graft, 
and,  pressing  toward  the  graft,  packs  the  soil  firmly  around  it. 
After  each  row  is  finished  in  this  way,  the  man  should  turn  back 
on  the  row  and  press  firmly  by  the  side  of  each  graft  with  the 
ball  of  the  foot. 

Another  method  of  planting  root-grafts  and  cuttings,  which 
is  applicable  for  planting  cuttings  on  a  small  scale,  is  as  fol- 
lows. This  is  not  a  fast  method  but  is  very  excellent  for 
a  few  grafts:  The  thoroughly  plowed  land  is  smoothed  off,  a 
line  stretched  and  walked  on  where  the  row  is  to  come  and 
then  thrown  to  one  side.  With  a  spade  throw  out  a  furrow 
along  the  line,  leaving  the  edge  straight  and  smooth  and  nine 
inches  deep.  Against  this  place  the  grafts  and  then  with  a  hoe 
turned  bottom  up  push  a  little  earth  against  the  lower  part 
of  the  root  of  each  graft,  and  afterwards  draw  three  inches  of 
soil  into  the  furrow  around  the  grafts  and  then  press  firmly 
against  each  graft  with  the  ball  of  the  foot.  Fill  the  trench 
full  and  repeat  the  footing  process  again.  A  more  expeditious 
way  is  to  plow  out  a  furrow  instead  of  making  it  with  a  spade, 
and  then  fill  the  trench  with  a  plow.  In  this  way  the  work  may 
be  successfully  done  if  the  soil  is  not  dry  and  the  season  is  fa- 
vorable. But  it  pays  well  to  do  good  work,  and,  where  one  has 
only  a  few  hundred  or  a  thousand  grafts  to  plant,  the  spade 
method  is  most  certain.  In  planting  in  a  dry  time  the  great 
key  to  success  is  to  have  the  land  firm  and  solid  around  the 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS. 


171 


root  and  the  union  so  that  there  will  be  no  air  spaces.  This  is 
very  important.  In  two  or  three  years  from  the  root-graft,  the 
trees  will  be  large  enough  to  be  transplanted  to  the  orchard. 
At  that'  time  some  of  the  trees  will  be  well  rooted  from  the 
cion  and  others  will  scarcely  show  any  at  all.  Others  may 
have  lost  the  stock  on  which  they  were  grafted  and  be  entire- 
ly on  their  own  roots.  In  this  latter  case  the  trees  will  not 
have  made  a  first  class  growth,  although  they  may  make  trees 
of  good  size  later  on. 

Side-grafting. — Side-grafting  is  a  form  of  union  in  which  the 
cion  is  inserted  in  a  cut  made  in  the  side  of  the  plant  grafted  on 

i       / 


a 


Fig.  85. — Crown  grafting  below  the    surface    of  the    ground,     a. — 
Inserting  cion  in  root  of  seedling,    b. — Waxing  the  graft. 

and  the  stock  is  not  cut  off  until  the  cion  has  started  to  grow. 
It  is  especially  applicable  to  cherry  seedlings,  on  which 
the  union  should  be  made  at  the  crown  of  the  plant,  which 
is  the  point  on  the  seedling  where  the  root  and  top  join.  This 
form  of  grafting  may  be  successfully  used  on  plums,  apples,  and 
other  fruits.  If  it  is  done  on  the  branches  of  a  tree  there  is  no 
necessity  of  cutting  off  the  part  above  the  graft  until  the  cion 
starts  into  growth. 

Grafting  below  ground. — If  grafting  is  done  just  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground  the  work  is  more  certain  of  being  success- 


172 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


ful  than  if  above  the  surface,  and  the  resulting  tree  will  be 
hardier  than  if  the  union  was  above  ground,  since  the  weakest 
point  in  a  tree  (the  graft)  will  be  protected  by  the  earth.  Of 
course,  very  frequently  it  is  impracticable  to  do  the  work  in  this 
manner.  The  methods  adapted  for  grafting  below  ground  are  the 
same  as  for  above  ground,  only  not  so  much  wax  is  required. 

In  grafting  below  ground,  it  is  important  to  remove  the  soil 
until  a  smooth,  straight  place  in  the  stem  is  found  of  sufficient 
length  to  contain  the  cion.  In  the  case  of  most  fruits  this  is 
preferably  at  the  crown,  1.  e.,  where  root  and  stem  meet.  It  is 
important,  also,  to  keep  the  wounds  free  from  dirt,  for  however 
much  it  may  help  to  have  the  whole  graft  covered  in  this  way, 
any  soil  on  the  cut  surfaces  will  prevent  that  desirable  close  con- 
tact of  the  cells  which  is  necessary  for  successful  work.  When 
grafting  is  done  below  ground,  suckers  will  often  start  from  the 
stock  in  great  numbers.  These  should  all  be  removed  or  the 
graft  will  be  ruined.  A  little  observation  soon  teaches  one  to 
distinguish  at  a  glance  the  sprouts  from  the 
stock  and  cion.  In  removing  these  suckers, 
they  should  be  pulled  away  from  the  stock  and 
not  simply  cut  off.  Only  one  shoot  should  be 
permitted  to  grow  from  each  cion  and  this 
should  be  the  thriftiest  and  generally  that 
starting  lowest  down.  The  lowest  is  saved 
because,  wherever  a  shoot  starts,  there  is  gen- 
erally a  crook  formed,  and  if  near  the  ground  it 
is  not  unsightly. 

Night  Cap  is  a  term  given  to  signify  a  paper 
bag  that  is  sometimes  drawn  over  and  tied  be- 
low a  graft  made  in  the  open  as  soon  as  it  Is 
completed.  It  Is  illustrated  in  Fig.  86.  Its  use 
is  to  prevent  the  shriveling  of  the  cion  due  to 
exposure  of  drying  winds.  It  is  especially  de- 
sirable in  top-grafting  trees  in  dry  seasons  or 
in  exposed  locations.  It  is  a  very  valuable  ad- 
Fi  86— Ni  ht-  Junct  to  tbe  grafting  outfit  and  its  use  should 
fap.  —  G^aft  be  more  general.  Of  course  the  bags  should 
be  removed  as  soon  as  the  cions  start  and  the 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS.  173 

same  care  should  be  taken  in  the  use  of  wax  around  the  graft 
as  if  the  night  cap  were  not  used. 

The  following  notes  on  grafting  different  fruits  will  perhaps        \ 
be  of  interest:  ^\/ 

Grafting  apples. — Top-working  and  crown-grafting  of  apples  V 
in  the  open  ground  should  be  done  about  the  time  the  buds 
are  nicely  started,  but  the  cions  should  not  have  started  at  all. 
It  is  perhaps  the  easiest  of  all  the  fruits  to  graft,  and  almost 
any  method  may  be  employed  on  it.  The  cions  should  be  from 
four  to  six  inches  long. 

Top-working. — By  top-working  is  meant  the  grafting  or  bud- 
ding of  a  tree  after  it  is  of  some  considerable  size.  The  term 
is  used  to  distinguish  such  trees  from  those  that  are  root-grafted. 
It  is  here  recommended  for  severe  locations  and  for  somewhat 
tender  kinds,  such  as  the  Wealthy  in  Central  Minnesota,  which, 
besides  being  somewhat  tender  and  liable  to  sun-scald,  is  weak 
in  the  stem  and  crotches. 

If  this  variety  is  grafted  on  the  branches  of  the  Hibernal, 
which  is  a  very  hardy  sort  with  strong  crotches,  a  tree  is  form- 
ed that  has  much  of  the  hardiness  of  that  variety  but  at  the 
same  time  bears  Wealthy  apples.  By  this  method  we  may  in- 
crease the  hardiness  of  trees  to  a  considerable  degree.  Some 
varieties  seem  to  be  better  adapted  to  one  stock  than  to  an- 
other. The  Hibernal  is  a  stock  that  is  hardy  in  every  particu- 
lar and  especially  desirable  for  top-working.  It  grows  rapidly, 
makes  a  large  tree  and  will  keep  up  in  rapidity  of  growth  with 
any  of  our  larger  apples.  Most  of  the  larger  growing  crabs 
make  good  stocks  for  top-working.  The  Transcendent  Crab 
may  be  successfully  used  for  this  purpose.  When  it  is  intended 
to  grow  an  orchard  by  this  method  the  stocks  should  be  set  in 
the  spring,  to  be  budded  the  following  August  or  to  be  grafted 
the  following  spring.  If  to  be  budded  the  buds  should  be  inserted 
in  about  the  same  positions  in  the  head  of  the  tree  as  the  grafts. 

Grafting  the  Plum. — The  plum  is  most  successfully  grafted 
very  early  in  the  spring— even  before  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground  or  a  bud  has  commenced  to  swell.  When  done  at  this 
time  the  work  is  generally  successful,  though  not  as  certain  as 
the  apple.  It  is  said  that  the  plum  may  be  grafted  very  sue- 


174  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

cessfully  later  in  the  spring,  even  after  the  buds  have  com- 
menced to  swell,  providing  the  buds  on  the  cion  are  started 
as  much  as  those  on  the  stock  at  the  time  the  work  is  performed. 

The  plum  may  be  quite  successfully  root-grafted  in  the 
house  in  the  winter,  as  recommended  for  the  apple  and  treated 
the  same  way,  but  it  generally  takes  a  year  longer  to  get  the 
tree  formed,  since  in  this  case  the  growth  from  the  cion  is 
quite  slow  the  first  two  years.  On  account  of  this  slow  growth 
root-grafted  plum  trees  are  often  crooked  and  unpromising. 
This  defect,  however,  may  be  remedied  by  cutting  away  in  the 
early  spring  of  the  second  year  all  the  growth  from  the  cion 
except  one  strong  bud  at  the  base.  If  this  work  is  done  very 
early  in  the  spring  it  will  result  in  throwing  the  whole  strength 
of  the  root  into  a  single  bud  and  the  forming  of  a  stem  that  is 
straight  in  place  of  the  former  crooked  one.  A  much  better  and 
more  satisfactory  plan  than  root-grafting  is  to  plant  the  stocks 
in  the  nursery  one  year  before  they  are  intended  to  be  grafted, 
and  then  graft  them  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  very  early 
in  the  spring.  For  this  purpose  cleft  or  whip-grafting  should 
be  used.  When  the  work  is  done  in  this  way  the  result  is  a 
very  strong  growth  from  the  cion.  If  the  suckers  are  pinched 
off  and  the  whole  strength  of  the  root  forced  into  one  shoot,  the 
result,  on  right  land  and  in  the  case  of  strong,  healthy  stock,  will 
be  to  give  a  growth  often  exceeding  four  feet  in  height.  Some- 
times the  growth  in  this  latter  case  will  be  so  heavy  that  the 
branches  are  liable  to  be  broken  off  in  the  wind,  and  should 
be  tied  to  stakes  with  soft  string.  The  cions  should  be  from 
four  to  six  inches  long. 

Grafting  the  Cherry. — The  cherry  may  be  root-grafted  in- 
doors in  the  winter.  When  this  is  done,  side-grafting  is  employ- 
ed and  gives  results  far  ahead  of  any  other  method.  But  with 
the  best  of  care  the  losses  from  in-door  grafting  of  this  fruit 
make  it  very  unsatisfactory.  Much  better  results  will  be  achiev- 
ed by  side-grafting  them  at  the  crown  of  the  plant  on  stocks  well 
established  in  the  open  ground,  as  in  the  plan  recommended  for 
propagation  of  the  plum.  In  regard  to  this  fruit  it  is  also  re- 
ported that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  plum,  the  work  may  be  done 
after  the  stocks  start  into  growth  a  little,  providing  the  cions 


PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  PLANTS.  175 

are  as  far  advanced.  The  cions  should  be  from  four  to  six 
inches  long. 

Grafting  the  Peach  is  occasionally  practiced  but  it  seldom 
gives  best  results.  Its  most  common  use  is  on  stocks  on  which 
the  buds  have  failed  to  grow  and  it  is  sometimes  very  successful. 

Grafting  the  Grape  is  done  most  safely  very  early  in  the 
spring,  even  before  a  sign  of  growth  appears,  but  it  may  also  be 
grafted  about  the  time  the  first  leaves  are  nicely  expanded,  if 
the  cions  are  kept  dormant  until  that  time.  The  work  should  al- 
ways be  done  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Any  form  of 
graft  may  be  used,  but  that  most  commonly  used  is  cleft-graft- 
ing, as  described.  In  making  a  cleft-graft  upon  a  grape 
root  it  is  often  necessary  to  saw  the  cleft  in  the  stock  with  a 
fine  saw,  on  account  of  the  crooked,  twisted  grain  of  the  wood, 
which  does  not  allow  it  to  split  straight.  Some  growers  do  not 
use  any  wax  around  the  graft  but  simply  cover  it  with  a  mound 
of  well  packed  earth  up  to  the  upper  bud  of  the  cion.  In  graft- 
ing after  the  leaves  are  expanded  some  propagators  prefer  to 
use  side-grafting,  and  do  not  cut  the  vine  severely  until  it  is 
believed  the  cion  has  grown  fast  to  the  stock,  when  the  vine  is 
cut  entirely  away.  Whip-grafting  is  also  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  cions  should  be  about  six  or  eight  inches  long. 

To  change  varieties  in  a  vineyard  grafting  on  a  cane  from  the 
O'.d  vine  is  sometimes  practiced.  In  this  case  a  cane  from  the 
old  vine  long  enough  to  reach  nearly  midway  between  the  vines 
is  grafted  with  a  cion  which  should  be  at  least  two  feet  long. 
When  grafted  the  graft,  including  the  cane  and  cion,  should  be 
buried  six  inches  deep,  the  end  bud  of  the  cion  being  brought 
above  the  ground  where  the  new  vine  is  desired.  The  following 
year  the  old  vine  may  be  largely  cut  away  and  the  growth  from 
the  cion  will  take  its  place.  This  method  is  not  so  neat  as  when 
the  vine  is  cut  off  and  grafted  below  at  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
but  it  has  the  merit  of  being  very  much  more  certain  of  not  neces- 
sitating the  destruction  of  the  old  vine  until  a  new  one  is  estab- 
lished. 

Grafting  by  approach  or  inarching  is  a  form  of  grafting  in 
which  the  branches  of  growing  plants  are  brought  together.  It 
is  sometimes  used  to  change  the  bearing  of  vines  or  trees,  or  to 


176  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

grow  two  branches  or  stems  together.  It  is  much  used  in  propa 
gating  such  ornamental  trees  as  cut-leaved  and  purple  birches. 
It  may  be  done  at  any  time  during  the  growing  season  and  on 
any  flexible  growth  of  whatever  age.  It  is  formed  by  shaving 
out  a  piece  of  bark  and  wood  from  the  stock  and  from  the  cion, 
of  the  same  size  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  inner  barks  of  each 
may  be  tied  together.  If  this  is  done  even  so  late  as  the  middle 
of  July  they  will  grow  firmly  together  before  winter.  It  is  cus- 
tomary, when  this  method  is  to  be  used  for  propagation,  to  either 
set  a  lot  of  small  plants  around  the  one  from  which  the  cions 
are  to  come,  or  to  grow  them  in  pots  and  set  pots  and  plants 
near  by.  When  the  branches  have  united  they  are  permitted  to 
grow  until  autumn,  then  the  cions  are  cut  off  just  below  the 
union  and  the  plants  with  the  cions  on  them  are  heeled  in  for 
winter  or  protected  in  some  other  way.  No  wax  is  needed,  as  the 
union  is  very  sure  if  the  parts  are  closely  tied  together.  This  is 
a  very  safe  and  sure  method  and  is  easily  performed,  even  by 
the  novice. 


QUESTIONS— CHAPTER    X. 

1.  For  what  purposes  are  plants  propagated  from  seed? 

2.  What  is  meant   by  stratification? 

3.  What  kinds  of  seed  are  stratified? 

4.  What  are  offsets  and  how  are  plants  propagated  from  them? 

5.  What    are    layers?    Spring   layers?    Summer    layers?    Mound 
layers? 

6.  What  plants  are  adapted  to  propagation  by  layers? 

7.  When  are  layers  made? 

8.  How  are  cuttings  made? 

9.  What   are    soft    wood   cuttings? 

10.  What  are  hard  wood  cuttings? 

11.  What    conditions    are    necessary    for    successful    growing    of 
hard  wood  cuttings? 

12.  When  should  they  be  made? 

13.  What  soil  is  best  for  planting  cuttings? 

14.  How   should  they  be  planted  and  when? 

15.  What   is  the  solar  pit? 

16.  How  is  it  made  and  for  what  purpose? 

17.  What  does  graftage  include? 

18.  What  are   the  limits  of  graftage? 

19.  What  is  meant  by  stock,  cion? 

20.  When  is  budding  practicable? 

21.  What  is  the  best  stock  to  be  budded  upon? 

22.  What  is  the  bud-stick? 

23.  When  is  the  best  time  for  budding? 

24.  What  conditions  are   necessary   for  successful   budding1. 

25.  What  implements  are  necessary? 

26.  What  material  is  used  for  tying  the  buds? 


PROPAGATION    OF    FRUIT    PLANTS.  177 

27.  How  are  the  buds  cut  from  the  bud-stick? 

28.  When  is  the  bark  in  the  best  condition  for  budding? 

29.  Describe  the  process  of  inserting  the  bud  in  the  stock. 

30.  What  precautions  must  be  taken  in  budding? 

31.  What  care  is  necessary  in  the  spring  and  fall,  after  the  buds 
Lave  started? 

32.  How  should  the  buds  be  protected  from  winter  Injury? 

33.  When   and  where   is   June   budding  practiced? 

34.  How  do  June-budded  trees  differ  from  other  budded  trees? 

35.  How  is  June  budding  performed  on  peaches  and  plums  in  the 
South? 

36.  What  is  shield  budding?     Flute  budding? 

37.  What  is  the   difference  between   grafting  and  budding? 

38.  What  precautions  must  be  taken  in  budding? 

39.  What  is  grafting  wax  used  for? 

40.  How  is  it  made? 

41.  What  other  materials  can  be  used  instead  of  grafting  wax? 

42.  How  is  cleft-grafting  performed? 

43.  What   tools  are  necessary   for  cleft-grafting? 

44.  How  should  the  cion  be  cut  for  cleft-grafting? 

45.  How  does  whip-grafting  differ  from   cleft-grafting? 

46.  How  and  when  are  root  grafts  made? 

47.  How  are  they  planted?    On  a  large  scale?    On  a  small  scale? 

48.  What  care  should  be  taken  when  planting  the  grafts  in  a  dry 
season? 

49.  What  is  side-grafting? 

50.  What  fruit  plants  is  it  best  adapted  to? 

51.  What  advantage  is  there  in  grafting  below  the  ground? 

52.  How  should  the  work  be  done? 

53.  For  what  purpose  is  the  night  cap  used? 

54.  How  are  apples  grafted? 

55.  How  are  they  budded? 

56.  What  is  the  result  of  top-working  varieties? 

57.  What  is  meant  by  top-working? 

58.  How  is  the  plum  most  successfully  grafted? 

59.  How  is  the  plum  root-grafted? 

60.  What   forms   of  grafting  are   used   on   the   cherry   with  best 
results? 

61.  How  is  the  peach  grafted? 

62.  When  is  the  grape  grafted? 

63.  What   methods   are    used? 

64.  How  may  the  varieties  in  a  vineyard  be  changed  by   graft- 
ing? 

65.  What  is  "inarching"  and  when  is  it  used? 


CHAPTER  XI. 
POME  FRUITS. 

THE  APPLE. 

Origin  of  the  Cultivated  Apple. 
Classes  of  Apples: 

(a)  The  true  apples  have  descended  from  the  Pyrus  mains 
of  Europe.     Characteristics:  Woolly  twigs,  on  new  growth,  calyx 
and  flower  stems;    fruit,  various  but  always  holding  its  calyx, 
i.  e.,  the  parts  of  the  flower  commonly  found  on  the  end  of  the 
fruit;   leaves,  thicker  and  broader  and   the  twigs  thicker  than 
those  of  the  crab   apples  (P.  "baccata).     The  common  apple  of 
commerce  comes  from  this  species. 

(b)  The  crab  apples  have  descended  from  the  Pyrus  "baccata 
of  Europe  and  Asia.    In  Europe  the  term  "crab"  is  often  applied 
to  any  small  inferior  kind  of  an  apple  which  may  be  said  to  be 
crabby.     Characteristics:     Growth,  smoother  and  more  wiry  than 
that  of  the  true  apple;  leaves,  narrower,  thinner  and  with  longer 
stems;  flower  clusters  and  leaves  seldom  woolly;  fruit,  small  on 
long,  wiry,  slender  stems;  seed,  enclosed  in  hard,  close  fitting 
hulls;  calyx  falls  off  when  the  fruit  is  mature.     There  are  few,  if 
any,  of  these  pure  crabs  in  cultivation.     Possibly,  however,  the 
Yellow  and  red  Siberian  crabs  are  of  this  parentage. 

(c)  Hybrid  crabs  are  sometimes  known  to  botanists  as  Py- 
rus prunifolia.    They  are  undoubtedly  the  result  of  crosses  be- 
tween the  true  crabs  and  the  larger  apples.     In  this  group  are  in- 
cluded most  of  the  so-called  crabs  of  commerce,  such  as  the 
Transcendent,  Hyslop,  Sweet  Russett,  Excelsior  and  others.     In 
them  are  to  be  found  the  quality  of  the  P.  mains  and  the  P.  &ac- 
cata,  mixed  in  various  proportions. 

(d)  Pyrus  coronaria,  the  largest  of  Western  crabs,  has  a 
form  which  has  become  known  as  Pyrus  ioensis.    This  is  a  native 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  eastward.     Characteristics:   Tree, 
vigorous,  especially  when  young;   young  growth,  woolly;  leaves, 
often  deeply  indented;  fruit,  green  or  later  yellowish,  aromatic, 


APPLE.  179 

hard,  bitter,  keeps  through  the  winter;  resembles  quince  in 
quality  and  used  like  the  quince  for  making  an  excellent  jelly. 

There  are  but  few  varieties  of  this  in  cultivation,  among 
them  are  the  Soulard  and  the  Fluke.  It  does  not  readily  cross 
with  the  cultivated  apple. 

Groups  of  Apples: 

Among  cultivated  varieties  of  apples  we  often  find  several 
that  closely  resemble  one  another  in  fruit,  foliage  and  habit. 
Some  of  these  groups  are  as  follows: 

(a)  The    Fameuse    group    includes    Fameuse,    Shiawassee 
Beauty,  Mclntosh  and  St.  Lawrence. 

(b)  The   Duchess   of    Oldenburg   group    includes    Duchess, 
Borovinka,  Gilbert  and  Charlamoff. 

(c)  The  Ben  Davis  group  includes  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Shock- 
ley  and  Black  Ben  Davis. 

Other  groups  will  suggest  themselves  to  those  acquainted 
with  many  varieties  of  apples. 

For  describing  apples  a  certain  convenient  nomenclature  has 
been  adopted.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  color,  shape  and 
quality  of  fruits  are  changed  by  soil  and  location.  The  character- 
istic appearance  of  the  wood  and  foliage,  however,  is  less  liable 
to  change;  in  the  identification  of  fruits  it  is  often  necessary  to 
take  them  into  account  as.  well  as  the  fruit,  and  a  good  descrip- 
tion should  include  the  tree  as  well  as  the  fruit.  These  terms,  as 
applied  to  the  growth  of  a  tree,  are  "strong  and  vigorous,"  as 
the  Duchess  of  Oldenburg;  "vigorous  and  slender,"  as  Anisim; 
"stout  and  short  jointed,"  as  the  Yellow  Transparent. 

For  the  general  form  of  the  tree  the  term  "upright  spread- 
ing" would  indicate  the  Duchess;  "spreading"  the  Roxbury  Rus- 
sett;  "upright"  the  Whitney;  "round  headed"  the  Red  Astrachan. 

In  describing  the  fruit  the  word  "base"  means  the  part  of 
the  apple  at  the  stem  end;  "apex,"  the  portion  at  the  blossom 
end;  "cavity"  is  the  depression  around  the  stem;  "basin,"  the 
depression  around  the  flower  end;  "calyx,"  the  so-called  flower 
in  the  apex  of  the  apple.  The  general  form  is  referred  to  as  be- 
ing "round,"  "oblate,"  "conical,"  and  "oblong,"  which  terms  are 
illustrated  in  fig.  87.  As  regards  size,  apples,  when  under  two 
and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  are  said  to  be  small;  when  from 


180 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter  they  are 
termed  "medium,"  and  above  this,  "large." 


Fig.  87. — Forms  of  apples.  a. — Oblong.  b.— Round.  c.— Conical. 
d. — Oblate.  Numbers  refer  as  follows:  1.  Stem.  2.  Cavity.  3. 
Calyx.  4.  Basin.  5.  Core. 

Propagation  of  Varieties: 
Apples  are  commonly  propagated 

(a)  By  root-grafting  in-doors  in  winter  on  whole  or  piece 
roots. 

(b)  By  crown-grafting  in  the  field  in  spring. 

(c)  By  budding. 


APPLE.  181 

Various  other  forms  of  graftage  may  be  successfully  used 
In  growing  the  apple  as  it  is  easily  worked  in  this  way. 
Stocks  for  the  Apple: 

(a)  Seedlings  of  vigorous,  hardy  sorts  are  commonly  used 
as  stocks  for  the  apple  in  the  best  apple  districts  and  little  at- 
tention is  paid  to  the  source  of  the  seed. 

In  the  Central  and  Northwestern  states,  where  the  winters 
are  severe  and  the  snowfall  often  scanty,  the  apple  is  liable  to 
winter  injury  and  much  care  is  taken  in  getting  hardy  stocks. 
For  this  purpose  seedlings  of  the  hardiest  varieties  are  sought. 

(b)  Seedlings  of  hardy  hybrid  crabs  are  now  much  favored 
for  severe  locations  and  are  giving  good  results,  but  are  not  suffi- 
ciently tested  so  that  their  value  can  be  definitely  stated.    It 
seems  from  present  experience  that  their  use  should  be  extended. 

(c)  Seedlings  of  the  pure  Pyrus  "baccata  are  of  great  hardi- 
ness and  are  now  being  widely  experimented  with  in  severe  loca- 
tions, especially  in  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas.     Some  varieties 
do  well  on  it  when  budded  or  grafted  at  the  crown  while  other 
kinds  unite  poorly  with  it  and  there  is  at  least  something  of  a 
question  as  to  its  future  usefulness  as  a  stock. 

(d)  Dwarf  apples  are  formed  by  working  them  on  the  Para- 
dise stock,  which  is  a  dwarf  apple  stock  much  used  in  Europe 
for  this  purpose  but  seldom  used  in  America.    It  makes  small 
trees  that  are  adapted  to  training  in  various  forms. 

(e)  Top-working  or  grafting  the  tops  of  trees  is  practiced  in 
some  sections  to  change  the  bearing  of  trees  and  to  overcome 
weaknesses  in  the  trunk  of  certain  kinds,  such  as  the  Wealthy, 
which  is  liable  to  canker  in  the  crotches  in  Minnesota  and  the 
Dakotas.    Some  varieties  are  much  more  productive  when  top- 
worked  than  when  merely  root-grafted. 

Location  of  the  apple  orchard. — The  best  location  for  an 
apple  orchard  is  on  high  northern  slopes  tipping  down  to  the 
northeast,  and  the  steeper  the  slope  the  better,  provided  it  does 
not  interfere  with  cultivation.  The  northern  slope  is  preferred 
because  it  is  least  affected  by  drouth,  sudden  changes  of  temper- 
ature, and  by  drying  winds,  which  very  uniformly  come  from  the 
South.  However,  some  excellent  orchards  in  the  Northwest  are 
located  on  southern  slopes.  It  is  important  to  plant  apple  trees 


182  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

on  the  highest  land  available.  Even  if  the  elevation  is  not  more 
than  ten  feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  adjacent  country, 
it  is  a  great  advantage  in  furnishing  air-drainage  and  thus  equal- 
izing the  temperature  and  lessening  the  danger  from  frost  in 
the  blossoming  period. 

The  worst  location  for  an  orchard  is  what  is  called  a  warm 
sheltered  spot,  where  the  sun  has  free  access  and  the  winds  are 
entirely  shut  off.  Into  such  a  place  the  cold  air  from  the  sur- 
rounding higher  elevations  settles,  making  it  cold  at  night  and  the 
hottest  place  during  the  day.  Blight  and  winter  killing  are  apt 
to  be  abundant  in  such  a  place.  In  some  sections — most  generally 
those  protected  by  water  or  forests  of  wooded  hills — but  little, 
if  any,  difference  is  to  be  noticed  in  the  growth  and  productive- 
ness of  trees  on  the  various  exposures,  while  in  exposed  places 
this  difference  is  very  marked. 

Windbreaks. — A  free  circulation  of  air  is  very  desirable  in 
an  orchard,  and  full  exposure  is  better  than  shutting  it  in  too 
closely,  yet  in  a  full  wind-swept  exposure,  the  best  conditions 
for  a  successful  orchard  are  not  found.  It  should  be  surrounded 
with  windbreaks  on  the  exposed  sides,  sufficient  to  somewhat 
break  the  force  of  the  wind  but  not  heavy  enough  to  prevent  a 
good  circulation  of  air  through  the  orchard  at  any  time.  It  is 
much  more  important  to  have  a  windbreak  on  the  south  and  west 
sides  of  an  orchard  than  on  the  north  or  east,  for  it  is  from  the 
former  directions  that  the  most  injurious  winds  come  from. 

The  land  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  apples  is  what  might 
be  called  a  deep,  open,  clayey  loam,  that  is  well  drained,  either 
naturally  or  artificially,  and  does  not  suffer  severely  from  drouth 
or  excess  of  water.  However,  the  apple  may  be  grown  success- 
fully on  almost  any  soil,  even  on  that  which  is  dry  and  gravelly, 
providing  it  has  a  reasonable  amount  of  plant  food;  but  orchards 
require  more  careful  management  in  severe  situations  than  in 
those  which  are  favorable  and  of  course  are  not  as  long  lived  and 
productive. 

The  soil  for  apple  orchards  must  be  retentive  and  rich  in 
plant  food,  for  it  is  impossible  to  raise  good  fruit  on  poor  soil. 
Sufficient  moisture  can  generally  be  secured  by  heavy  mulching, 
and  the  newer  soils  of  the  Northern  states  are  generally  rich 


APPLE. 


183 


enough  for  apples  without  manuring;  indeed,  heavy,  black  prairie 
loam  is  generally  so  rich  in  plant  food  that  it  stimulates  in  most 
varieties  of  apples  a  late  growth,  especially  when  the  autumn 
is  warm  and  moist,  and  only  the  hardiest  kinds,  such  as  those 
that  do  not  maKe  a  late  growth  in  autumn,  should  be  planted  in 
such  locations. 


Fig.  88. — Various  kinds  of  roots  on  apple  trees,  a.— Cut  too  short, 
b. — Stock  has  died  and  roots  have  been  sent  out  from  the  cion. 
c. — Similar  to  b,  but  with  more  fibrous  roots,  d. — A  good  form 
well  dug,  in  which  the  stock  is  still  preserved. 

If  the  sub-soil  is  a  very  hard  clay  that  the  roots  can  scarcely 
penetrate,  very  deep  plowing  should  be  resorted  to;  but  as  this  is 
not  deep  enough  to  give  the  roots  much  of  a  chance  in  very  hard, 
dry  clays,  the  holes  should  be  dug  very  deep.  A  better  way  than 
digging  holes  into  such  hardpan  is  to  explode  a  medium  charge  of 


184  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

dynamite  in  each  hole,  which  will  so  loosen  the  soil  that  the  roots 
can  penetrate  it.  In  some  locations,  such  treatment  will  make  all 
the  difference  between  success  and  failure. 

Trees  should  be  selected  that  are  vigorous  and  healthy,  with 
plenty  of  strong  roots.  It  is  really  of  little  importance  what  the 
size  or  form  of  the  top  of  the  tree  may  be,  provided  it  has  good 
roots  and  is  healthy  and  free  from  blemishes;  for,  if  vigorous, 
the  form  of  the  top  may  be  readily  changed.  The  best  trees  are 
those,  not  over  four  years  old,  that  have  made  moderate  but  not 
rapid  growth  in  the  nursery.  Three-year-old  trees,  of  most  va- 
rieties, are  generally  the  best  to  set.  Two-year-old  trees  do  very 
well  and  are  often  as  good  as  any.  One-year-old  trees  are  too 
small  to  conveniently  cultivate  around  them  in  the  field  and  are 
better  off  in  the  nursery  for  another  year. 

Seedlings. — Apple  seed  grows  readily  and  generally  forms 
plants  about  twelve  inches  high,  with  tap-roots  of  about  the 
same  length,  the  first  season.  The  seed  does  not  reproduce  in 
quality  the  fruit  it  was  taken  from,  and  probably  not  one  seedling 
in  a  thousand  is  as  good  as  any  of  the  better  cultivated  kinds. 
Seedlings,  however,  are  raised  in  large  quantities,  to  be  used  in 
grafting  and  to  increase  the  named  varieties.  Apple  seed  is  gen- 
erally obtained  by  washing  out  the  pomace  from  cider  mills.  The 
seeds  are  heavier  than  the  pulp  and  are  readily  separated  from  it 
by  water.  It  is  best  not  to  allow  the  seed  to  get  very  dry  after 
cleaning,  and  on  this  account  some  growers  prefer  to  sow  it  in 
the  fall  shortly  after  cleaning,  while  others  mix  it  with  sand  and 
keep  it  buried  in  the  ground  until  spring.  If  the  seed  gets  very 
dry  it  often  fails  to  start,  or  does  not  start  for  one  year,  unless 
scalded  or  mixed  with  moist  sand  and  allowed  to  freeze  and  thaw 
a  few  times.  In  a  small  way  the  seed  may  be  kept  mixed  with 
sand  and  buried  in  a  box  in  the  ground  until  spring,  when  it 
should  be  put  in  a  warm  place  until  it  starts  into  growth  a  little. 
It  should  then  be  sown  in  drills  three  inches  deep  and  about  three 
feet  apart,  in  rich,  warm  soil,  sowing  about  twenty  seeds  to  the 
foot. 

Root  grafted  trees  should  always  be  preferred  to  those  that 
are  budded  for  severe  sections,  although  in  the  case  of  hardy 
trees  that  have  already  been  root-grafted,  budding  is  as  good  as 


APPLE.  185 

grafting  to  change  the  bearing  qualities,  where  extremely  hardy 
stocks  are  used.  The  objection  to  budded  trees  is  not  in  the 
method  of  propagation,  but  in  the  fact  that  the  buds  must  be  in- 
serted above  or  close  to  the  ground  in  a  seedling  root  which  is 
often  of  doubtful  hardiness  and  may  be  quite  tender  and  the  bud 
is  partly  exposed  above  ground,  where  it  is  liable  to  fail  at 
any  time.  Root-grafted  trees  have  the  graft  below  ground  and 
send  out  roots  from  above  the  graft,  which  increases  the  hardi- 
ness of  the  tree.  Quite  frequently  the  roots  of  a  budded  or  graft- 
ed tree  will  be  tender  and  kill  out,  while  the  top  is  healthy  and 
sound,  consequently  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  roots  as  hardy 
as  the  top.  But  as  this  is  not  always  practicable,  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  get  the  hardiest  roots  obtainable.  In  most 
favorable  locations,  budded  trees  may  be  just  as  desirable  as 
those  which  are  root-grafted.  The  kind  of  root-graft,  whether  it 
is  made  with  whole  or  piece  roots,  makes  but  little  difference 
to  the  ordinary  planter,  who  should  try  especially  to  get  good 
trees  and  then  be  careful  to  plant  the  graft  well  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground. 

Planting. — For  planting,  the  land  should  be  in  as  good  condi- 
tion as  is  required  for  corn.  The  work  of  planting  will  be  greatly 
facilitated  if  the  land  is  furrowed  out  both  ways  with  a  large 
plow,  and  the  trees  set  at  the  intersections.  If  the  trees  must  be 
set  in  sod,  a  hole  five  feet  in  diameter  should  be  dug  for  each  tree; 
no  grass  should  be  allowed  to  grow  in  this  space,  and  it  should 
be  heavily  mulched.  In  setting  the  trees,  the  holes  should  be 
made  large  enough  to  take  in  all  the  roots  without  crowding.  If 
it  is  necessary  to  set  trees  into  the  subsoil,  as  it  often  is,  then  in 
digging  the  holes  the  top-soil  should  be  kept  separate  from  the 
sub-soil  and  be  put  back  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole  so  as  to  be  in 
contact  with  the  roots.  The  roots  should  be  evenly  spread  out 
in  the  hole  and  the  fine  top  soil  carefully  worked  among  them  so 
as  not  to  leave  any  air  spaces  between  or  under  them.  If  the 
soil  is  dry  it  can  hardly  be  made  too  solid  around  the  roots.  If 
wet,  but  little  pressure  should  be  used. 

The  time  to  plant. — In  the  extreme  North,  fruit  trees  should 
never  be  set  in  the  fall  of  the  year  as  they  are  then  especially 
liable  to  winter  injury,  nor  should  they  be  dug  from  the  nursery 


18C  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

rows  in  the  spring,  as  they  are  very  liable  to  have  been  weakened 
by  unfavorable  winter  conditions  and  will  often  start  poorly.  They 
should  be  dug  in  the  autumn  and  buried  root  and  branch — "heeled 
in" — in  dry  soil  until  spring,  or  else  be  carried  over  the  winter  in 
a  cold  cellar.  As  few  cellars  are  fit  for  this  purpose  it  is  gener- 
ally safer  to  bury  them  outside.  As  a  rule,  it  is  best  for  plant- 
ers to  get  their  trees  in  the  fall,  as  they  are  then  more  certain 
to  get  good  stock,  and  there  is  no  delay  in  waiting  for  them  to 
come  in  the  spring.  The  trees  may  be  set  as  soon  as  the  soil 
works  easily  in  the  spring,  and  until  the  trees  break  into  leaf. 
Usually  moderately  early  planting  gives  the  best  results,  but  it 
Is  bad  practice  to  set  trees  in  wet,  sticky  soils. 

In  the  more  favorable  sections  for  apple  growing  there  is 
very  little  danger  of  trees  in  the  nursery  being  injured  in  winter 
and  hence  it  is  safe  to  dig  the  trees  in  the  spring  and  set  them 
out.  Autumn  planting  is  also  successful  with  apples  in  very 
favorable  locations  but  must  be  done  with  much  care  for  best 
results. 

Autumn  planting. — While  it  is  best,  as  a  rule,  to  plant  .trees 
In  the  spring,  yet  it  is  quite  practical  to  plant  apples,  plums, 
and  most  other  fruit  trees  in  the  autumn,  provided  that  they  are 
afterwards  laid  on  the  ground  on  the  approach  of  winter  and 
covered  with  earth  and  a  little  mulch.  This  makes  considerable 
additional  labor  over  spring  planting.  On  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, it  permits  of  planting  in  the  autumn  when  the  general  farm 
and  garden  work  is  not  as  pressing  as  in  the  spring.  It  really 
amounts  to  the  "heeling  in"  of  each  tree  separately.  In  the  spring 
the  trees  should  be  uncovered  and  straightened  up  before  growth 
starts,  and  they  are  then  all  ready  to  go  on  and  grow. 

"Heeling  in"  is  a  term  used  to  designate  the  temporary  bury- 
ing of  the  roots  of  trees  or  plants  in  earth  or  other  material.  If 
the  trees  are  to  be  moved  again  within  a  few  days,  a  very  light 
covering  will  be  sufficient;  but  if  they  are  to  remain  several  weeks 
much  care  should  be  taken  to  do  the  work  well.  To  begin  with, 
select  a  dry,  mellow  piece  of  ground;  dig  a  wide  ditch,  put  in 
the  trees — a  few  at  a  time — either  in  an  erect  or  sloping  posi- 
tion, and  cover  them  so  deep  and  firm  that  they  cannot  dry  out. 
If  apples  or  some  other  somewhat  tender  trees  are  to  remain 


APPLE. 


187 


"heeled  in"  over  winter,  it  will  be  found  best  to  commence  by 
digging  a  trench  about  two  feet  deep  and  three  feet  wide  in  dry 
land,  where  no  water  will  stand  in  the  trenches;  put  in  a  layer  of 
trees,  sloping;  cover  over  the  roots  with  a  thin  layer  of  fine,  mel- 


Fig.   89. — Heeling-in.     Showing  methods  followed  in  heeling-in  trees 
of  orchard  transplanting  size. 

low  earth,  filling  in  carefully  and  solid  all  the  interstices  among 
the  stems  and  roots;  continue  thus  until  all  the  trees  are  in,  when 
the  tops  should  be  bent  to  the  ground  and  covered  with  a  few 
inches  of  earth. 

Depth  to  plant. — In  the  best  locations,  the  trees  should  be 
set  about  four  inches  deeper  than  they  grew  in  the  nursery.  In 
very  dry,  light  soil,  they  may  be  put,  perhaps,  twelve  inches  deeper 
than  they  naturally  grew.  On  steep  hillsides,  they  must  be  set  much 
deeper  or  they  will  come  too  near  the  surface,  owing  to  the  slope  of 
the  land.  One  of  the  most  important  objects  secured  by  deep 
planting  is  the  sending  out  of  roots  from  the  cion,  for  when 
trees  are  well  rooted  from  the  cion  they  are  generally  much  im- 
proved in  hardiness.  However,  in  deep,  retentive  soil  deep  plant- 
ing  is  not  desirable. 

Distance  apart  to  plant. — In  favorable  locations  apples  should 
be  set  farther  apart  than  where  the  conditions  are  very  severe. 
Most  varieties  do  best  toward  the  northern  limits  of  apple  growing 


188  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

when  not  over  thirty  feet  apart.  In  favorable  apple  districts 
in  the  Eastern  states  apple  trees  are  generally  set  35  to  40  feet 
apart,  while  in  some  of  the  Pacific  Coast  fruit  sections,  where 
the  trees  seldom  become  large,  they  are  set  out  25  to  30  feet  apart. 
Apple  trees  should  be  set  so  as  to  "break  joints"  north  and  south 
— that  is,  the  trees  in  one  row  should  be  set  opposite  the  vacan- 
cies in  the  next.  If  the  rows  run  northeast  and  southwest  tha 
trees  will  shade  one  another  on  the  southwest  side,  which  is  the 
side  most  liable  to  injury  from  the  sun. 

Cultivation. — Young  orchards  should  be  cultivated  in  some 
hoed  crop  which  does  not  necessitate  the  working  of  the  soil  in 
autumn,  but  will  keep  the  land  well  cultivated  early  in  the  sum- 
mer. For  this  purpose  corn,  early  potatoes  or  squash  are  good 
crops.  Do  not  sow  the  ordinary  small  grains  in  orchards.  Buck- 
wheat, however,  seems  to  be  an  exception  to  the  rule,  and  on 
account  of  its  dense  shade  is  a  very  good  crop  for  this  purpose. 
After  the  trees  begin  to  Lear  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  seed  the 
land  to  clover,  which  should  be  broken  up  occasionally.  The 
trees,  however,  should  be  well  mulched  with  stable  litter  and,  if 
they  do  not  make  a  satisfactory  growth,  should  be  manured. 
When  an  orchard  becomes  "sod  bound"  nothing  will  do  it  more 
good  than  a  drove  of  hogs,  sufficient  to  root  up  all  the  sod,  but 
they  must  not  be  allowed  to  gnaw  the  trees.  Besides  breaking 
up  the  sod  the  hogs  are  very  beneficial  in  destroying  many  kinds 
of  insects. 

Forming  the  tree. — Whatever  the  shape  of  the  tree  when  it 
is  received  from  the  nursery,  it  will  need  careful  attention  in 
the  orchard.  The  question  whether  to  grow  trees  with  a  long 
or  short  trunk  is  a  much  disputed  one;  but  it  may  be  laid  down 
as  a  general  rule  that  in  favorable  locations  the  trunks  of  the 
hardier  kinds  should  be  free  from,  branches  for  fully  three  feet 
from  the  ground,  but  in  such  cases  they  may  need  some  protec- 
tion from  sunscald.  In  very  severe  and  exposed  locations,  or 
in  the  case  of  somewhat  tender  varieties,  it  will  be  better  to 
have  the  trees  branch  near  the  ground.  When  formed  in  this  way, 
they  are  hardier  and  less  exposed  to  the  wind  than  if  they  have 
tall  trunks.  There  is  a  constant  tendency  for  trees  to  incline  to 
the  northeast,  and  this  should  be  prevented  as  far  as  possible. 
To  do  this,  the  growth  should  be  encouraged  on  the  southwest 


APPLE. 


189 


side  by  light  summer  pruning  on  the  north  side.  Also,  in  set- 
ting the  trees,  they  should  be  slightly  inclined  to  the  southwest 
and  an  effort  made  to  keep  them  in  that  direction. 

Sprouting  from  the  roots. — In  the  case  of  young  thrifty  trees, 
such  as  the  Wealthy  and  some  other  kinds,  even  with  trees  up 
to  six  inches  in  diameter,  vigorous  sprouts  will  often  be  pro- 


Fig.    90. — Apple   trees    of  various   forms   showing   method   of  pruning 
for  planting. 

duced  from  the  trunk  when  the  top  is  badly  injured  and  such 
sprouts  will  make  profitable  trees.  This  has  been  the  experience 
in  Minnesota  where  trees  have  been  killed  back  in  severe  win- 
ters. 

Mulching. — The  advantage  of  a  mulch  around  trees  in  ap- 
ple orchards  is  not  generally  appreciated.  It  checks  evaporation 
and  prevents  the  running  off  of  water  and  allows  it  to  soak  into 
the  ground.  It  helps  to  equalize  the  moisture  in  the  soil  through- 
out the  growing  season,  and  prevents  root-killing  in  winter.  It 
is  of  the  greatest  assistance  in  rather  dry  locations,  where  its 
use  makes  success  possible  with  many  varieties  that  otherwise 


190  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

would  be  complete  failures.  In  almost  any  soil  of  the  North- 
west the  chances  of  trees  living  and  doing  well  would  be  in- 
creased by  the  use  of  a  mulch  around  them,  but  this  is  especially 
true  of  trees  on  sandy  land  and  in  southern  exposures.  It  is 
generally  best  to  cultivate  the  land  around  trees  when  they  are 
small;  but  if  they  are  set  on  sod  land,  or  after  they  begin  to 
bear,  or  if  they  suffer  from  drouth,  they  should  be  heavily 
mulched  at  once,  and  this  should  be  renewed  as  often  as  nec- 
essary to  keep  a  covering  five  or  six  inches  in  depth  on  the 
ground  at  all  times  extending  at  least  four  feet  on  all  sides  of  the 
tree,  and,  in  the  case  of  larger  trees,  extending  out  as  far  as 
the  branches.  Trees  that  are  mulched  should  for  best  results 
have  the  mulch  removed  and  the  soil  spaded  up  around  them 
each  spring.  Mulch,  however,  encourages  the  presence  of  mice 
which  are  liable  to  gnaw  the  bark  from  the  stems  which  must 
be  protected  against  them. 

The  varieties  of  the  apple  differ  greatly  in  their  resistance 
to  severe  climatic  conditions.  Some  varieties  have  wonderful 
hardiness  and  recuperative  qualities  and  are  adapted  to  a  wide 
range  as,  for  instance  the  Oldenburg,  Baldwin,  Ben  Davis  and 
Tolman  Sweet,  while  others  are  adapted  only  to  a  limited  range, 
like  the  Yellow  Newtown.  There  are  a  large  number  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  although  but  few  of  them  are  cultivated  in  a  large 
way  commercially.  The  varieties  of  the  first  degree  of  hardiness 
are  recommended  by  the  Minnesota  State  Horticultural  Society 
and  may  be  taken  as  illustrating  the  kinds  that  should  be  tried  in 
the  most  severe  northern  sections.  They  are  Hibernal,  Duchess 
of  Oldenburg,  Charlarnoff,  Patten's  Greening  and  Okabena. 
This  list  illustrates  the  way  in  which  we  are  developing  an 
American  pomology  of  our  own,  for  of  this  list  the  first  three 
are  of  northern  European  origin  and  the  last  two  are  American 
seedlings;  one,  Patten's  Greening,  originated  in  northern  Iowa; 
the  other,  Okabena,  originated  in  southwestern  Minnesota. 

The  principal  varieties  of  apples  cultivated  in  the  large 
commercial  orchards  of  the  chief  apple-growing  regions  include 
the  Baldwin,  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Winesap,  Greening,  Grimes  Gold- 
en, Jonathan,  Missouri  Pippin,  Northern  Spy,  Oldenburg,  Tol- 
man Sweet  and  Wealthy. 


PEAR. 


191 


The  insects  and  diseases  commonly  attacking  the  apple  are 
the  codlin  moth,  flat  headed  apple  tree  borer,  tent  caterpillar, 
apple  curculio,  apple  leaf  lice,  and  among  the  common  diseases 
are  scab  and  fire  blight.  See  Chapter  III,  Insects,  and  Chapter 
IV,  Diseases. 

Pear. 

Pear  growing  has  been  an  important  matter  in  the  North- 
eastern states  since  the  early  settlement  of  the  country,  and 
has  attained  great  commercial  importance  in  parts  of  California 
of  late  years.  In  the  interior  states  the  pear  has  been  subject 
to  fire  blight  and  its  cultivation  has  made  little  progress.  In 
the  Gulf  states  the  sand  pear  hybrids  only  are  grown.  The  pear 
is  probably  nearly  as  hardy  as  the  apple  against  climatic  trou- 
bles. 

\ptigin. — The  commonly  cultivated  pear  of  America  and 
Europe  has  been  developed  from  the  wild  pear  (Pyrus  com- 
munis)  of  Europe  and  Asia.  In  its  native  state  the  fruit  is  hard 
and  inferior.  Pliny  said  of  the  pears  in  his  time  that  they  all 
had  to  be  cooked  to  be  eaten.  The  greatest  improvement  in 
pears  was  made  by  Von  Mons  in  Belgium  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.  He  originated  many  of  the  best  kinds  now 
grown. 

The  Chinese 
Sand  Pear  (Pyrus 
sinensis)  was  in- 
troduced into  this 
country  about  the 
middle  of  the  last 
century  and  was 
for  many  years 
cultivated  mostly 
as  a  curiosity  and 
for  ornament.  It 
is  a  vigorous  tree, 
with  broad,  shin- 

ing,    very    resist- 
Fig.  91 — Forms  of  Pears.  A. — Solid  line  shows  .      *rtn___     __j 

obtuse  pyriform.  Dotted  line,  round.  B.—  ant  foliage  and 
Solid  line  shows  oblong  obovate.  Dotted  consoicuous  fruit 
line,  acute  pyriform. 


192  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

so  gritty,  hard  and  acid  as  to  be  valueless  for  des- 
sert purposes  but  useful  like  the  quince  when  cooked. 
It  readily  crosses  with  the  ordinary  pear  (P.  communis)  of 
gardens  and  a  large  number  of  more  or  less  mixed  seedlings 
has  been  the  result.  Among  these  are  two  that  have  become 
commercially  valuable.  These  are  the  Kieffer  and  the  Le  Conte. 
The  Le  Conte  was  for  a  long  time  thought  to  be  entirely  resistant 
to  fire  blight  and  especially  adapted  to  the  Southern  States,  but  of 
late  years  it  has  been  badly  affected  with  this  disease  and  now 
the  Kieffer  is  regarded  as  the  most  reliable  even  in  the  South, 
although  it  is  not  entirely  resistant  to  the  fire  blight.  At  the 
North,  and  over  a  wide  range  of  territory,  the  Kieffer  has  prov- 
en a  profitable  sort  on  account  of  its  fine  appearance  and  keep- 
ing qualities,  although  of  inferior  quality.  It  is  also  less  liable 
to  attacks  of  the  San  Jose  scale,  at  least  in  some  locations,  than 
varieties  of  P.  communis. 

The  flowers  of  the  pear  are  perfect  and  yet  there  are  many 
varieties  that  are  most  certain  only  when  grown  mixed  in  the 
orchard  with  other  kinds  and  it  is  now  a  customary  practice  to 
mix  the  varieties  in  the  orchard.  This  weakness  of  pears  does 
not  seem  to  be  constant  but  varies  possibly  according  to  soil 
and  location. 

Standard  pears. — What  are  known  as  Standard  pears  are 
worked  on  seedlings  of  the  small  wild  crabby  pears  which  are 
common  in  Europe,  botanically  the  Pyrus  nivalis,  or  on  seedlings 
of  the  Oriental  pears.  These  have  lots  of  plump  seed  and 
are  vigorous  and  thrifty.  Most  of  the  stocks  used  in  this  coun- 
try are  imported  from  Europe.  The  seedlings  are  not  easily 
grown  as  they  are  liable  to  leaf  blight  when  young. 

Dwarf  pears. — When  the  pear  is  worked  on  what  is  known 
as  quince  stocks,  the  resultant  trees  are  dwarf  in  size  and  bear 
fruit  very  young.  Some  varieties  of  the  pear  bear  best  and 
the  fruit  is  of  improved  quality  when  worked  on  this  stock. 
The  stocks  for  this  purpose  are  generally  grown  by  layering 
the  vigorous  Angers  quince.  The  layers  are  then  planted  out 
in  nursery  rows  and  when  growing  thriftily  are  budded  or 
grafted  in  spring  with  the  pear.  The  pear  does  not  make  a  good 
union  on  the  Japanese  quince  and  all  attempts  to  use  it  for  this 
purpose  have  failed. 


PEAR. 


193 


If  dwarf  pears  are  planted  deep,  they  throw  out  roots  above 
the  graft  and  then  become  Standards,  but  quince  stock  must  be 
below  ground  for  protection.  An  observant  person  can  easily  dis- 
tinguish the  dwarf  pear  trees  that  have  roots  from  the  cion 
by  their  greater  vigor  and,  if  desired,  these  pear  roots  may  be 
cut  off  and  the  strong  growth  checked. 

Dwarf  pears  have  the  merit  of  fruiting  very  young  and 
heavily,  often  when  only  three  years  from  the  bud.  They  are 
especially  fitted  for  the  small  garden  and  of  little  importance 


Fig.  92. — Some   of   the   peculiar  ways  in  which   pear  trees  are   com- 
monly pruned  in  French  gardens. 

otherwise.  Dwarf  pears  need  to  have  their  new  wood  shortened 
each  year  if  they  are  to  be  kept  in  compact  form,  otherwise 
they  get  too  rangy.  About  twelve  feet  is  the  proper  distance 
between  them.  The  Duchess  pear  is  the  most  popular  sort  for 
growing  on  quince  roots. 


194  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Thorns,  (Crataegus),  Mountain  Ash  and  even  Shad  Bush 
(Amelanchier  canadensis)  have  been  used  as  pear  stocks  with 
fair  results.  The  Mountain  Ash  is  occasionally  used  for  this 
purpose  in  Sweden,  where  ordinary  pear  stocks  are  tender. 

The  Kieffer  pear  is  sometimes  grown  from  cuttings  in  the 
South  and  used  as  a  stock  for  other  pears. 

Propagation. — The  pear  is  grown  in  practically  the  same 
ways  as  the  apple,  that  is,  (a)  by  crown-grafting  in  the 
field,  (b)  by  root-grafting  in  the  house  in  winter  on  whole 
roots — in  this  case  the  growth  is  generally  quite  slow  the  first 
year,  (c)  by  budding  in  summer. 

Soil  and  cultivation. — The  pear  needs  a  rich,  retentive  soil 
but  thrives  on  a  variety  of  soils  and  especially  likes  a  rather 
hard  sub-soil  clay.  It  is  short  lived  on  soils  of  a  loose,  open 
texture.  Fire  blight  is  especially  troublesome  on  soils  where 
the  trees  make  a  very  rapid  growth  and  it  is  the  practice  of 
some  growers  to  keep  the  land  in  sod  to  prevent  too  rapid 
growth  of  wood.  Yet  the  pear  orchard  must  not  be  allowed  to 
become  so  firmly  bound  in  sod  that  the  trees  are  prevented  from 
making  a  reasonable  growth.  Nitrogenous  manures  and  the  use 
of  nitrogenous  cover  crops  should  generally  be  avoided  in  the 
pear  orchard  and  most  attention  given  to  the  use  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid. 

Trees  and  planting. — Young,  thrifty  trees,  about  two  years 
from  the  bud  or  three  years  from  the  root  graft,  are  best  for 
planting.  Standard  pears  are  generally  planted  16x16  or  20x20 
feet  apart,  according  to  the  form  and  size  of  the  varieties.  Pears 
generally  bear  paying  "crops  younger  than  apples.  This  quality, 
however,  varies  with  the  different  kinds. 

Pruning. — Pears  need  more  pruning  than  apples  when  young. 
During  the  first  few  years  after  planting,  the  few  central  shoots 
that  often  seem  to  occupy  all  the  attention  of  the  tree  when 
young  should  be  pinched  or  shortened  except  the  strongest  cen- 
tral shoot,  which  should  be  preserved  through  the  life  of  the 
tree.  Proper  attention  to  this  when  the  trees  are  young  will 
develop  a  head  that  will  need  but  little  training  after  the  trees 
commence  to  bear. 

Fruit. — Pears  vary  greatly  in  size,  quality,  color  and  form,  and 
also  in  season  of  ripening,  from  early  summer  to  late  winter. 


QUINCB.  195 

Some  are  valuable  only  for  cooking,  others  are  of  finest  dessert 
quality.  The  fruit  should  be  protected  by  spraying  and  should 
be  picked  when  full  grown,  even  if  very  hard,  as  they  are  im- 
proved by  being  ripened  under  cover.  Some  varieties  that 
water  core  badly  on  the  tree  are  exempt  from  it  when  tha 
fruit  is  ripened  under  cover.  Fruit  allowed  to  hang  long  on 
the  trees  in  autumn  does  not  keep  well. 

The  fruit  is  marketed  as  fresh  fruit,  dried,  canned  and  used 
for  making  pear  cider  known  as  "perry." 

Insects  and  diseases  commonly  attacking  the  pear  are 
much  the  same  as  those  attacking  the  apple.  The  pear  is,  if 
anything,  more  liable  to  fire  blight  than  the  apple.  See  Chapter 
III,  Insects,  and  Chapter  IV,  Diseases. 

The  varieties  of  the  pear  that  are  most  popular  include  the 
Bartlett,  Kieffer,  Clairgeau,  Anjou,  Howell,  Sheldon,  Seckel  and 
Nelis.  The  Duchess  is  the  most  popular  dwarf  kind.  By  the 
proper  selection  of  varieties  the  season  for  the  pear  may  be 
extended  from  early  summer  to  late  winter,  but  the  very  early, 
and  especially  the  very  late,  pears  are  not  of  the  best  quality 
and  are  generally  supplanted  by  the  apple  which  is  more  easily 
grown. 

Quince. 

Origin. — The  quince  (Cydonia  vulgaris)  is  a  fruit  of  com- 
paratively little  importance.  It  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  South- 
eastern Europe.  There  are  not  many  varieties  of  it  and  few 
of  these  are  much  known.  The  plant  is  a  shallow  rooted  shrub, 
seldom  over  twelve  feet  high,  and  is  sometimes  trained  to  the 
tree  form.  It  is  chiefly  grown  in  New  York,  New  England  and 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  prefers  a  cool,  rather  moist  climate  and 
is  uncertain  elsewhere.  There  is  a  demand  for  it  in  most  of  the 
markets  of  the  Northern  states. 

Flowers. — The  flowers  of  the  quince  much  resemble  those 
of  the  apple  but  are  larger  and  more  open,  are  white,  shaded  to 
pink,  are  produced  singly  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs  and  are  very 
ornamental.  They  are  supposed  to  be  self-fertile. 

Propagation. — The  quince  is  easily  propagated.  The  most 
common  ways  are  as  follows: 

(a)  Cuttings  of  the  new  wood  planted  in  autumn  (com- 
mon) and  from  cuttings  of  the  surface  roots  (uncommon). 


196  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

(b)  Mound  layering,  i.  e.,  by  piling  the  soil  up  among  the 
stems  which  causes  them  to  root,  after  which  they  are  sepa- 
rated and  set  out. 

(c)  Budding  or  grafting  the  cultivated  kinds  on  the  free 
growing  Angers  Quince  (uncommon). 

(d)  By  grafting  long  quince  cions  on  pieces  of  apple  roots, 
perhaps  one  or  two  inches  long,  which  are  broken  off  in  one  year 
and  the  plants  then  obtained  on  their  own  roots.     This  method 
is  generally  successful  and  especially  desirable  with  some  kinds 
that  do  not  grow  easily  from  cuttings.     It  is  customary  to  use 
the  short  pieces  of  apple  root  commonly  wasted  in  root-grafting 
the  apple,  for  this  purpose. 

(e)  The  quince  grows  well  from  seed  which  starts  readily. 
The  fruit  of  seedlings  may  be  either  pear  or  apple  shaped. 

Soil  and  planting. — Rich,  retentive,  not  moist  soil  is  best. 
Sandy  soils  are  not  so  desirable  as  clay  soils.  The  bushes 
should  be  planted  out  about  twelve  feet  apart  each  way.  Avoid 
cultivation  of  the  soil  as  much  as  possible,  especially  in  late  sum- 
mer, and  avoid  stable  manure,  as  these  have  a  tendency  to  en- 
courage fire  blight.  Nitrogenous  fertilizers  and  nitrogenous 
cover  crops  should  be  avoided.  Fertilizers  containing  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid  are  best. 

Pruning. — Little  pruning  is  required,  except  to  keep  the 
suckers  off  from  the  roots  and  trunks.  The  trees  should  branch 
close  to  the  ground. 

Picking. — The  fruit  should  be  picked  when  it  begins  to 
turn  yellow  and  it  must  be  handled  with  great  care,  as  it 
bruises  easily.  If  stored  in  a  cool  place  the  fruit  will  keep  a 
month  or  more.  It  is  used  only  for  cooking  when  it  has  a 
peculiar  and  delicious  quality  quite  its  own.  Most  of  it  is  pre- 
served in  the  form  of  jelly  or  marmalade  but  when  baked  it 
makes  a  desirable  dessert. 

Insects  and  diseases. — The  quince  is  attacked  by  nearly  the 
same  insects  and  diseases  that  affect  the  apple  and  pear  and  is 
especially  liable  to  leaf  rust,  fire  blight  and  leaf  blight.  See 
Chapter  III,  Insects,  and  Chapter  IV,  Diseases. 

The  varieties  of  the  quince  commonly  grown  are  the  Orange, 
Champion,  Rea  and  Meech. 


QUINCE.  197 

QUESTIONS— CHAPTER    XI. 
Apples. 

1.  Into  what  classes  may  apples  be  divided? 

2.  Characterize  each. 

3.  Into  what  groups  of  varieties  may  apples  be  divided? 

4.  What  terms  are  applied  in  descriptions  of  apples? 
6.  How  are  apples  propagated? 

6.  What  stocks  are  used  in  different  localities? 

7.  How  are  dwarf  apples  formed? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  "top-working?" 

9.  What  is  the  best  location  for  an  apple  orchard? 

10.  What  is  a  poor  location  for  an  apple  orchard? 

11.  Of  what  advantage  is  a  windbreak  to  an  orchard? 

12.  What  soil  is  best  adapted  to  apple  growing? 

13.  With  what  kind  of  trees  should  the  orchard  be  started? 

14.  How  are   seedlings   grown  and  for  what  purpose? 

15.  How  is  apple  seed  obtained? 

16.  How  is  it  cared  for  and  planted? 

17.  What  are  the  merits  of  root-grafted  trees? 

18.  What  are  the  merits  of  budded  trees? 

19.  How  should  apple  trees  be  set  out? 

20.  What   care   should   be   taken   in    planting? 

21.  When  is  the  best  time  to  plant  trees? 

22.  When  should  autumn   planting  be   practiced? 

23.  What  is  meant  by  "heeling  in?" 

24.  How  are  plants  heeled  in? 

25.  What  depths  should   trees  be  set? 

26.  How  far  apart  should  trees  be  planted? 

27.  What  cultivation  do  orchards  require? 

28.  What  pruning  should  be  done? 

29.  In  what  case  should  sprouting  from  the  roots  be  encouraged? 

30.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  mulch  in  the  orchard? 

31.  When  and   how   should   a   mulch    be   applied? 

32.  What  varieties  are  best  adapted  to  the  North?    To  the  South? 

33.  What  varieties  are  most  grown  for  commercial   use? 

Pear. 

34.  In  what  sections  of  the  country  is  the  pear  grown? 

35.  Of  what  country  is  the  pear  a  native? 

36.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Chinese  sand  pear? 

37.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  Le  Conte  and  Kieffer  pears? 

38.  What  are  Standard  pears? 

39.  What  are  dwarf  pears  used  for? 

40.  What    are    their   characteristics? 

41.  What  trees  are  used  as  stock  for  the  pears? 

42.  How   is   the  pear  propagated? 

43.  What  cultivation  and  soil  is  best  for  the  pear? 

44.  How  should  young  trees  be  planted  out? 

45.  What  pruning  do  the  trees  need? 

46.  What  are  the  qualities  of  the  fruit? 

47.  How  is  the  fruit  marketed? 

48.  What  insects  and  diseases  are  injurious  to  the  pear? 

49.  What  are  some  of  the  common  varieties  of  the  pear? 

50.  How  are  pears  packed  for  market? 

Quince. 

5,1.  Of  what  country  is  the  quince  a  native? 

52.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  quince? 

53.  In  what  ways  may  the  quince  be  propagated? 

54.  What  soil  and  cultivation  is  best  for  the  quince? 

55.  What  pruning  does  the  tree  require? 

56.  When  should  the  fruit  be  picked? 

57.  For  what  is  it  used? 

58.  What  are  the  common  varieties  of  the  quince? 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  STONE  FRUITS. 

Under  the  head  of  stone  fruits  we  include  peaches,  plums, 
cherries,  almonds,  nectarines,  and  apricots,  all  of  which  are 
classified  under  the  genus  Prunus.  This  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant groups  to  horticulturists  and  contains  some  very  valu- 
able fruits  and  ornamental  plants.  The  almond  is  an  impor- 
tant fruit  that  belongs  under  this  head,  but  its  cultivation  is  not 
referred  to  in  this  chapter  as  it  is  included  under  the  head  of 
nuts. 

The  Plum. 

There  are  more  species  of  the  plum  cultivated  in  a  large 
way  in  this  country  than  any  other  of  our  common  fruits.  In 
the  Northeastern  states  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  the  European 
or  Domestica  plums  are  much  at  home  and  commonly  grown. 
In  many  of  the  Central  states  the  Japanese  plums  are  widely 
grown  and  are  increasing  in  popularity.  Even  as  far  north  as 
southern  Minnesota,  they  are  grown  successfully  in  the  best 
plum  localities.  In  the  great  Mississippi  Valley,  extending  from 
far  north  to  the  south,  the  most  popular  varieties  of  plums  are 
those  that  have  sprung  from  the  native  sorts.  These  have  been 
developed  within  less  than  half  a  century. 

The  different  species. — There  are  several  species  from 
which  the  cultivated  sorts  have  come.  They  are  as  follows: 

(a)  European   or  Domestica  plum  group   (Prunus   domes- 
tica).    This  plum  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia  and 
includes  most  of  the  finest  plums  of  commerce.    Its  most  com- 
mon color  is  red  or  purple,  but  it  is  also  found  with  yellow  or 
green  skin.    In  Europe  it  is  cultivated  far  into  the  north,  but 
the  same  varieties  that  are  successfully  grown  in  the  cold  north 
there  have  failed  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
Popular  varieties  in  this  claes  are  Lombard,  German  Prune,  Vic- 
toria and  Bradshaw. 

(b)  The  Myrobalan  or  Cherry  plum  group  (Prunus  cerasife- 
ra).    This  plum  is  native  to  southeastern  Europe.    It  is  a  favor- 


PLUM.  199 

ite  stock  on  which  to  bud  varieties  of  the  P.  domestica.  The 
De  Caradeuc  and  Mariana  plums,  which  are  supposed  to  have 
sprung  from  species  native  to  this  country,  are  probably  close- 
ly related  to  this  species. 

(c)  Japan  plum  group  (Prunus  triflora).    This  plum  comes 
to  us  from  Japan,  whence  it  was  introduced  about  thirty  years 
ago.     It  is  probably  a  native  of  various  parts  of  Asia  and  is 
closely  allied  to  our  American  plum.    The  fruit  is  of  large  size 
and  brilliantly  colored  in  red,  yellow  and  purple.     It  does  es- 
pecially well  in  good  plum  sections  and  has  a  wider  range  than 
the  Domestica  class  of  plums.     Many  varieties  flower  so  early 
in  the  spring  that  their  crops  are  uncertain.     It  seems  quite 
probable  that  crosses  with  it  and  some  of  the  native  kinds  will 
give  rise  to  very  valuable  varieties  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of 
conditions.     Examples  of  this  class  are  Kelsey,  Burbank  and 
Abundance. 

(d)  American   plum   group   (Prunus   americana).    This   Is 
the  common  wild  plum  of  the  Northern  states  and  Canada,  ex- 
tending from  the  Rocky  Mountains  eastward  across  the  continent 

and  well  to  the  south.  It  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  severe 
conditions  of  the  northern  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  plains, 
and  from  it  have  come  a  large  number  of  varieties,  including 
such  well  known  kinds  as  De  Soto,  Wyant,  Wolf,  Weaver  and 
Rollingstone.  A  form  of  this,  sometimes  known  botanically  as 
Prunus  nigra  and  having  some  quite  evident  characteristics  of 
its  own,  is  found  somewhat  north  of  the  range  of  the  typical 
Prunus  americana.  Good  examples  of  this  are  the  Cheney  and 
Aitkin,  both  of  which  flower  early  and  mature  their  fruit  ear- 
ly. Plums  of  this  class  seem  to  do  best  in  northern  Minnesota, 
northern  North  Dakota  and  Manitoba. 

(e)  The  Wild  Goose  group  (Prunus  nortulana),  represents 
a  group  of  plums  that  seem  especially  adapted  to  southern  Iowa, 
Missouri,  southern  Illinois  and  adjacent  sections.    Among  these 
are  such  well  known  popular  varieties  as  Wild  Goose  and  Way- 
land. 

(f)  The  Chickasaw  group  (Prunus  angustifolia  or  P.  chica- 
sa)  are  native  to  the  Southern  states  and  include  such  varieties 
as  Newman,  Pottawatomie  and  Lone  Star. 


200  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Bailey  classifies  the  various  varieties  of  the  Prunus  domes- 
tica  substantially  as  follows: 

Prunes. — These  are  known  by  their  sweet,  firm  flesh,  which 
contains  enough  sugar  to  permit  of  their  being  dried  and  made 
a  commercial  product.  As  a  rule  a  good  prune  should  contain 
not  less  than  12  per  cent  of  sugar.  Many  plums  that  are  grown 
as  prunes  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  elsewhere  are  cultivated  in 
the  Eastern  states  as  plums. 

The  Damsons  represent  a  small  class  of  plums  having  very 
firm  flesh,  the  fruit  of  which  is  borne  in  clusters  and  the  foliage 
is  small.  These  are  commonly  seen  along  fences  and  in  various 
wild1  places  in  many  of  the  Eastern  states.  They  are  generally 
grown  from  seed  and  not  grafted.  The  fruit  is  valuable  prin- 
cipally for  cooking. 

Gages. — In  addition  to  these  there  is  a  class  known  as  Green 
Gages,  which  are  round  and  generally  of  good  table  quality. 
The  variety  known  as  Green  Gage  is  typical  of  this  group. 
Large,  yellow  plums,  such  as  Coe's  Golden  Drop,  may  be  used  to 
represent  another  group.  Large  purple  and  blue  plums  repre- 
sent another  section,  and  some  of  the  most  important  under  this 
class  are  Lombard,  Bradshaw  and  Quackenboss. 

Propagation. — The  plum  is  propagated  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
The  American  sorts  are  sometimes  grown  from  root  cuttings. 
In  this  case  the  trees  used  are  on  their  own  roots.  Cuttings 
for  this  purpose  consist  of  pieces  of  the  smaller  surface  roots 
that  are  cut  up  in  autumn,  about  four  inches  long.  They  are 
then  mixed  with  sand  in  boxes  or  nail  kegs  and  stored  in  a  cold 
cellar  until  spring,  by  which  time  they  will  be  calloused  and 
very  likely  will  have  started  buds.  These  cuttings  are  general- 
ly sown  thickly  in  drills  about  three  feet  apart  and  covered 
about  three  inches  deep. 

Growing  plums  from  suckers. — The  American  plums  are 
also  grown  from  suckers  which  are  encouraged  by  cutting  the 
surface  roots  about  trees  that  are  growing  on  their  own  roots. 
This  method  is  a  favorite  one  for  many  small  growers  and 
amateurs.  Some  horticulturists  consider  trees  grown  on  their 
own  roots  much  superior  to  those  that  are  grown  in  the  usual 
way. 


PLUM. 


201 


The  European,  Japan  and  American  plums  are  mostly  grown 
by  budding  or  grafting  on  seedling  plums.  Crown-grafting  in 
spring  on  well  established  seedlings,  is  a  common  practice. 
Root-grafting  on  whole  roots  in  winter  is  practiced  the  same 
as  root-grafting  the  apple,  and  is  successful  but  not  as  reliable 
as  crown  grafting  in  early  spring,  and  the  plants  start  slowly 
when  grown  in  this  way. 

Stocks  for  the  plum. — The  Myrobalan  plum  is  in  common 
use  as  a  stock  for  the  plum.  The  Mariana,  a  nearly  allied  stock, 
is  also  used  and  both  make  good  stocks  for  the  plum  in  the 
milder  sections.  For  the  colder  sections,  as  in  Minnesota,  the 
Dakotas,  northern  Iowa,  Wisconsin  and  adjacent  states,  seed- 
lings of  the  native  Prunus 
americana  are  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Seedlings  of  the  Wild 
Goose  type  of  plums,  as  well  as 
those  of  Prunus  americana, 
make  excellent  stocks  for 
southern  Iowa,  Missouri  and 
Kansas.  Peach  seedlings  are 
largely  and  successfully  used 
as  stocks  for  the  plum  in  mild- 
er plum-growing  sections,  while 
for  the  colder  states  they  are 
to  be  avoided.  The  apricot 
has  been  tried  as  a  stock  for 
the  American  varieties  of  the 
plum  but  fails  to  make  a  per- 
manent union  with  it. 

The  soil  for  the  plum  should 
preferably  be  one  that  is  thor- 
oughly well  drained  and  rea- 
sonably retentive  of  moisture, 
but  it  will  succeed  in  any  good  agricultural  soil.  The  trees  hold  on 
well,  even  on  quite  gravelly  ridges,  but  in  such  situations  in 
dry  years  the  fruit  is  exceedingly  small  and  the  trees  make  but 
little  growth  and  are  short  lived. 

Trees  and  planting. — It  is  best  to  set  only  young  trees,  that 


Fig.  93. — Sprout  of  a  plum 
root  taken  off  with  a  piece  of 
a  parent  root;  the  best  way. 


202 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


is,  those  under  three  years.  Plums  that  have  made  a  strong 
growth  may  be  set  at  one  year  old.  Most  planters  prefer  them 
at  this  age  as  they  are  cheaper  and  easier  to  plant  out  than 
older  trees.  Plums  are  generally  planted  from  16  to  20  feet 
apart  each  way  and  for  some  dwarf  varieties  the  smaller  dis- 
tance may  be  sufficient,  but  for  the  stronger  growing  kinds  twen- 
ty feet  is  little  enough  between  them.  As  a  rule  a  better  plan 
than  planting  equi-distant  apart  each  way  is  to  plant  the  trees 


Fig.  94. — Old  plum  tree  pruned  in  order  to  renew  the  top. 

16  to  20  feet  apart  in  rows  forty  or  fifty  feet  apart  and  grow 
some  other  crop  between. 

Mixing  Varieties. — There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the 
flowers  of  the  plum.  Some  varieties  are  generally,  if  not  al- 
ways, self-fertile,  while  others  are  commonly,  if  not  always  self- 
sterile.  These  qualities  seem  to  vary  more  or  less,  according 
to  location  and  soil.  Much  disappointment  has  arisen  from  the 


PLUM.  203 

planting  of  self-sterile  ki"nds  singly,  as,  notably,  the  Wild  Goose. 
It  can  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule,  and  it  will  apply  espe- 
cially to  the  native  kinds,  that  varieties  of  the  same  time  of 
flowering  should  be  mixed  in  orchards. 

Cultivation. — Good  cultivation  is  as  essential  in  the  plum  orch- 
ard as  with  other  kinds  of  fruit.  The  best  growers  agree  that 
spring  plowing,  followed  by  shallow  cultivation  during  the  sum- 
mer, and  the  planting  of  a  cover  crop  in  July  or  August  will  give 
best  results.  Growing  the  trees  in  sod  will  lessen  the  size  of 
the  fruit.  Frequent  cultivation  during  the  spring  months  will 
keep  down  the  sprouts  which  are  likely  to  come  up  around  plums 
which  are  on  Americana  roots. 

Pruning. — The  European  plums  usually  make  good  heads  and 
need  Ijttle  pruning.  On  the  other  hand,  many  varieties  of  Amer- 
ican and  Japanese  plums  are  of  a  very  sprawling  and  awkward 
habit  of  growth  and  require  severe  heading  in  to  keep  them  in 
good  shape.  Pruning  should  be  done  regularly,  so  that  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  remove  large  limbs.  The  larger  wounds  are 
quite  likely  to  become  diseased  if  they  are  not  painted  or  cov- 
ered with  grafting  wax.  Broken  or  split  branches,  which  are 
often  found  on  plum  trees  unless  the  fruit  is  properly  thinned, 
should  be  removed  at  the  first  opportunity. 

Thinning. — Proper  thinning  is  even  more  essential  with 
plums  than  with  most  other  fruits.  Nearly  all  varieties  have  a 
tendency  to  set  many  more  fruits  than  the  trees  can  mature 
properly.  Thinning  increases  the  size  of  the  individual  fruits 
and  their  market  value,  and  saves  many  broken  limbs.  Over- 
bearing may  even  shorten  the  life  of  the  tree,  particularly  in  the 
Japanese  varieties.  The  fruit  should  be  thinned  after  the  June 
drop,  the  proportion  of  the  fruit  which  is  removed  being  a  mat- 
ter which  the  grower  must  settle  for  himself.  The  fruits  should 
not  be  less  than  five  or  six  inches  apart  on  the  branches. 

Picking. — The  European  plums  should  be  picked  with  the 
stem  on;  the  American  plums  naturally  become  detached  from 
the  stem  at  maturity.  The  fruit  may  be  either  a  free  stone  or 
a  cling  stone  and  examples  of  each  are  found  among  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  the  plum.  (The  word  "prune"  is  applied  to  a 
class  of  plums  having  firm  flesh  and  a  larger  per  cent  of  sugar 


204  POPULAR    FRUIT    GROWING. 

• 

than  the  ordinary  plum,  which  dries  readily.)  Some  of  the  best 
plum  growers  practice  thinning  the  fruit.  The  time  when  the 
different  varieties  come  into  bearing  depends  much  on  the  pecul- 
iarities of  each  sort.  The  different  classes  of  plums  usually 
bear  fruit  in  three  years. 

Packing  and  Marketing. — Plums  are  sold  either  in  berry 
boxes,  in  ten-pound  baskets,  or  in  special  boxes  or  baskets.  The 
usual  method  of  marketing  Americana  plums  is  in  quart  boxes 
or  in  half-bushel  or  bushel  baskets.  Only  the  fancy  fruit  should 
be  put  in  boxes.  The  ten-pound  grape  basket  is  a  common  pack- 
age in  the  East  for  the  European  varieties.  Western  plums  and 
prunes  are  usually  shipped  in  small  baskets  or  flat  boxes,  the 
individual  fruits  often  being  wrapped  in  paper. 

Insects. — The  insects  most  injurious  to  the  plum  are  the 
Curculio,  Peach  Borer,  Tent  Caterpillar  and  Leaf  Lice,  which  see 
in  chapter  on  Insects. 

The  diseases  especially  injurious  to  the  plum  are  Brown 
Rot,  Plum  Pocket  and  Leaf  Curl.  Plum  Knot  and  Shot  Hole  fun- 
gus are  discussed  under  the  head  of  diseases. 

The  varieties  of  the  plum  are  many  and  various.  In  the 
great  plum  growing  sections  of  the  Pacific  Coast  tne  principal 
kinds  grown  are  Burbank,  Climax,  Clyman,  Satsuma,  Wickson, 
Yellow  Egg,  Grand  Duke,  Washington,  Blue  Damson. 

In  the  Northeastern  states  the  principal  varieties  grown 
are  Lombard,  Abundance,  Wildgoose,  Burbank. 

The  varieties  best  adapted  to  Minnesota  and  the  surround- 
ing states  are  Wyant,  De  Soto,  Wolf,  Stoddard,  Surprise,  Cheney 
and  Forest  Garden. 

Cherry. 

The  cultivated  kinds  of  cherries  probably  came  from  the 
two  species  known  botanically  as  Prunus  avium  and  Pranus 
cerasus,  both  of  which  are  natives  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but  in 
the  centuries  in  which  they  have  been  under  cultivation,  they 
have  been  crossed  and  recrossed  until  it  is  impossible  to  sep- 
arate the  varieties  into  their  species. 

The  Different  Classes. — The  cultivated  sorts  are  divided  for 
convenience  into  two  classes: 


CHERRY.  205 

a.  Kinds  with  sweet  juice,  including  what  are  known  as  Maz- 
zard  and  Hearts  cherries.    These  are  generally  tall,  rather  erect 
growing  trees.     They  do  best    in    a    somewhat    moist    climate, 
notably  in  coast  states  where  the  winters  are  not  severe. 

b.  Kinds   with   sour  or   sub-acid  juice,   including   what  are 
known  as  sour  and  morello  cherries,  of  which  the  Montmorency 
and  Early  Richmond  varieties  are  examples.     These  types  are 
usually  low-headed,  with  spreading  branches.     They  include  the 
hardiest  known  varieties,  some  of  which  do  well  even  in  dry  cold 
climates. 

Prunus  mahaleb,  a  slender,  small  tree  bearing  small,  dark 
red  austere  fruit,  a  native  of  southern  Europe,  is  sometimes  found 
in  cultivation.  It  is  used  for  stocks  upon  which  cherries  are 
propagated. 

The  wild  American  cherries  include  the  sand  cherry  (Prunus 
besseyii);  the  large  choke  cherry  of  the  Western  states  (Prunus 
demissaj,  and  the  bird  cherry  (Prunus  Pennsylvania). 

Location  and  Soil. — The  cherry  will  succeed  on  a  drier  soil 
than  most  other  fruits.  It  must  have  good  drainage  in  both  soil 
and  air  if  it  is  to  be  successfully  grown.  In  wet  places  or  water- 
soaked  subsoils  it  soon  perishes.  The  best  locations  are  on  high 
land  tipping  to  the  north,  as  in  a  location  of  this  sort  growth 
does  not  start  as  early  in  the  spring  and  the  buds  are  not  so  apt 
to  be  injured  by  frost.  A  rise  of  even  a  few  feet  above  surround- 
ing land  is  desirable,  if  high  land  cannot  be  obtained.  Cherries, 
do  best  on  a  rather  light  sandy  or  gravelly  loam.  If  the  soil  is 
very  rich  they  tend  to  produce  too  much  wood.  The  subsoil 
should  be  porous  and  well  drained,  neither  clay  hard  pan  or  dry 
gravel.  A  good  cherry  soil  should  contain  plenty  of  moisture 
early  in  the  spring  months  and  up  to  the  time  of  ripening  of  the 
fruit,  but  after  that  only  enough  to  ripen  the  wood  slowly. 

Planting. — The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  and  in 
good  working  condition  before  the  trees  are  set.  The  distance 
between  trees  will  vary  with  the  variety,  climate,  soil  and  rain- 
fall. The  sweet  cherries  on  rich  soil  in  a  good  location  require 
from  thirty  to  forty  feet  distance,  while  the  sour  cherries  under 
the  same  conditions  require  about  400  square  feet  of  soil  or  to 
be  set  20x20  feet.  If  the  soil  is  not  very  rich  and  is  rather  dry 


206 


POPULAR   FRUIT    GROWING. 


a  distance  of  from  25  to  28  feet  for  sweet  cherries  is  sometimes 
used  and  of  16  to  20  for  sour  cherries. 

The  cherry  should  never  be  used  as  a  filler.  It  requires 
different  cultivation  and  attention  than  the  apple  or  peach  and 
hence  should  be  by  itself. 


Fig.  95. — Sour  cherry  tree  of  good  form. 

Either  the  square  or  hexagonal  system  of  planting  are  desir- 
able. The  square  system  gives  a  little  more  land  to  each  tree 
and  consequently  less  trees  per  acre  than  the  hexagonal  plan. 

Time  of  Planting. — In  mild  sections  where  spring  comes 
early  and  there  are  no  late  spring  frosts,  or  where  the  rains  con- 
tinue late,  planting  may  be  done  in  the  fall.  In  the  colder  sec- 
tions, and  in  fact  generally,  early  spring  planting  will  be  found 
to  give  best  results. 

Stock  may  be  purchased  in  the  fall  and  carefully  heeled  in 
over  winter  ready  for  early  spring  planting.  The  holes  should 
be  dug  large  enough  so  that  the  roots  will  go  into  them  without 


CHERRY.  207 

crowding.  All  bruised  or  injured  roots  should  be  cut  off  and  the 
top  cut  back  to  correspond  to  this  trimming.  In  severe  climates 
it  is  well  to  set  the  trees  from  four  to  six  inches  deeper  than 
they  grew  in  the  nursery.  In  some  good  cherry  districts  they 
are  set  only  two  or  three  inches  deeper  than  they  originally  grew. 
Put  in  some  rich  black  loam  and  lean  the  tree  slightly  to  the 
direction  from  which  the  prevailing  winds  come.  Tramp  the  soil 
firmly  about  the  roots.  Then  add  more  soil  and  tramp  it  liglitly, 
finally  filling  the  hole  and  raking  the  top  soil  or  leaving  it  loose 
and  fine  on  top.  Some  water  may  be  used  in  the  bottom  of  the 
hole  to  help  pack  the  earth  if  desired. 

Age  of  Trees. — Good  strong  first-class  one-year-old  or  low 
headed  two-year-old  trees  should  be  used  in  planting.  In  the 
West  one-year-old  trees  are  preferred.  In  some  other  sections, 
two-year-olds  with  a  good  root  system  are  used. 

Cultivation. — For  the  first  five  or  six  years  at  least  the 
orchard  should  be  thoroughly  cultivated.  After  that  a  grass  or 
mulch  system  may  be  followed,  though  it  is  a  question  if  cultiva- 
tion is  not  better.  Some  vegetable  crop  may  often  be  raised 
though  it  is  not  desirable  to  crop  the  ground  too  much.  Cultiva- 
tion should  start  as  soon  as  possible  in  the  spring  and  continue 
until  the  last  of  July  or  middle  of  August,  when  a  cover  crop 
should  be  sown. 

If  the  trees  are  not  making  a  good  growth  Canada  peas  or  a 
vetch  may  be  used;  if  the  growth  is  too  rapid  and  too  much  wood 
is  being  produced,  rye  may  be  sown.  A  bearing  orchard  should 
not  be  permitted  to  grow  too  vigorously  in  late  summer,  as  late 
growth  is  made  at  the  expense  of  fruit. 

Propagation. — The  cherry,  in  common  with  other  fruits,  does 
not  come  true  from  seed,  though  the  seedlings  are  often  of  good 
quality.  The  seedlings  are  generally  used  as  stocks  on  which 
to  work  named  varieties.  The  pits  should  be  managed  as  rec- 
ommended for  plum  pits.  Named  varieties  are  propagated  by 
grafting,  budding  or  suckers.  Cherries  may  be  grown  on  a  num- 
ber of  different  stocks,  but  the  Mahaleb  (Prunus  mahalebj  and  the 
Mazzard,  a  strong  growing  variety  of  Prunus  avium,  are  most  often 
used.  These  are  imported  from  France.  Cions  should  be  taken 
from  healthy  bearing  trees,  and  if  grafting  is  employed,  the  work 


208  POPULAR   FRUIT    GROWING. 

must  be  done  early  in  the  spring  before  growth  starts.  Budding 
is  usually  done  in  August. 

The  Mahaleb  stock  is  hardier  than  the  Mazzard,  especially 
in  a  dry  climate,  and  is  used  almost  entirely  as  a  stock  on  which 
to  bud  the  sour  cherries.  It  is  too  tender  for  severe  climates. 

The  Mazzard  is  a  native  of  eastern  Europe  and  is  used  as  a 
stock  for  sweet  cherries.  It  is  not  hardy  enough  for  severe 
locations.  It  may  be  used  for  root  grafting,  but  budding  is  the 
method  usually  employed. 

Where  the  cherry  is  on  its  own  roots,  suckers  may  often  be 
taken  and  planted  to  advantage.  It  is  a  poor  plan  to  follow 
with  grafted  or  budded  stock,  however,  as  the  quality  of  the 
plant  is  usually  not  known. 

A  few  varieties  may  be  grown  by  cuttings,  but  it  is  a  rather 
uncertain  method  and  is  seldom  used. 

Top-working. — In  some  sections  where  the  body  of  the  tree 
is  apt  to  suffer  from  sunscald  or  other  trouble,  varieties  may  be 
grafted  on  resistant  trees  to  advantage.  The  work  must  be  done 
early  in  spring  before  the  buds  start. 

Pruning. — The  cherry  needs  only  enough  pruning  to  keep  the 
tree  in  shape.  In  Russia  it  is  grown  in  bush  form  and  when  it 
becomes  too  old  to  be  profitable  the  old  parts  are  cut  away  and 
new  sprouts  take  their  places.  The  important  thing  to  remem- 
ber in  connection  with  this,  as  well  as  all  other  stone  fruits,  is 
that  they  should  be  trained  low. 

Picking  and  Marketing. — Cherries  must  be  picked  by  hand  as 
soon  as  they  begin  to  color  in  order  to  have  them  ship  well. 
They  require  very  careful  handling,  although  there  is  a  difference 
in  varieties  in  this  respect.  They  must  not  be  poured  from  one 
receptacle  to  another. 

They  should  be  packed  immediately  after  picking,  precooled 
and  shipped  at  once.  One  day  lost  in  starting  or  in  transit  may 
mean  a  considerable  loss  when  the  fruit  is  put  on  the  market. 
Cherries  are  usually  packed  in  ten  pound  boxes,  or  in  the  case 
of  sour  cherries,  in  quart  boxes  or  market  baskets. 

Insects  and  Diseases. — The  insects  and  diseases  affecting 
the  cherry  are  much  the  same  as  those  affecting  the  plum. 


PEACH. 


209 


Among  the  worst  of  these  pests  are  the  curculio,  which  stings  the 
In? it;  the  leaf  slug,  which  injures  the  foliage;  borers  which  work 
in  the  trunk;  and  brown  rot,  which  is  often  very  destructive  to 
the  fruit  just  as  it  is  ripening. 

These  and  other  pests  affecting  the  cherry  will  be  found 
described  in  the  chapters  on  Insects  and  Diseases. 

Varieties. — Among  the  sweet  cherries  Lewelling,  Napoleon, 
Royal  Duke  and  Windsor  are  probably  the  best.  Montmorency, 
English  Morello  and  Early  Richmond  are  good  varieties  of  sour 
cherries. 


Fig.  96. — English  Morello,  one  of  the  best  cherries  for  the  North. 


Peach. 

The  peach  is  one  of  the  most  uncertain  of  our  cultivated 
fruits.  It  is  highly  esteemed  and  is  used  almost  entirely  as  a 
luxury  by  the  greater  part  of  our  people.  It  is  nowhere  adapted 
to  great  areas,  although  widely  grown  in  a  small  way.  It  is 
grown  in  a  large  commercial  way  in  a  few  favorable  sections, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned:  1.  TJ.3  section  along  the  south 
shore  of  the  Great  Lakes,  including  portions  of  southern  Michi- 


210 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


gan,  New  York,  Ohio  and  southern  Canada;  2.  Long  Island  and 
portions  of  Connecticut,  southern  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Dela- 
ware and  Maryland;  3.  Further  south  there  is  a  great  peach 
section  in  the  highlands  of  northern  Georgia,  Alabama,  etc.; 
4.  Southern  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  portions  of  Kansas,  Iowa  and 
Nebraska;  5.  Parts  of  Texas;  6.  Parts  of  eastern  Colorado; 
7.  A  large  part  of  California. 

The  northern  limits  of  successful  peach  growing  in  New 
England  is  perhaps  central  Massachusetts,  and  even  in  southern 
New  Hampshire  peaches  are  raised  in  favorable  years.  In  the 
Mississippi  Valley  peaches  are  raised  as  far  north  as  southern 

Iowa.  However,  as  the 
northern  limits  of  peach 
raising  are  reached,  the 
crop  becomes  uncertain, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  kill- 
ing of  the  fruit  buds  In 
winter,  which  will  gener- 
ally stand  a  temperature 
of  over  25  degrees  below 
zero  if  the  wood  is  well- 
ripened  in  autumn.  The 
flower  buds  are  much  more 
tender  than  the  leaf  buds 
and  are  often  killed  with- 
out injuring  the  growth  of 
the  trees.  On  rich  soils, 
especially  on  those  that 
ave  liable  to  be  moist,  the 
peach  grows  too  late  in 
autumn  and  the  flower 
buds  will  kill  in  such  loca- 
tions even  when  uninjured 
on  higher,  drier,  and  perhaps  poorer,  soils.  In  central  Iowa  the 
planting  of  the  hardiest  kind  of  peaches  has  been  attended  with 
some  success. 

Laying  the  peach  trees  down  in  winter. — In  northern  Iowa 
and  southern  Minnesota  a  few  peaches  are  grown  each  year  by 


Fig.  97. — Protecting  peach  trees. 
Peach  tree  tied  up,  ready  for  winter 
covering.  (After  Whitten.) 


PEACH. 


211 


bending  the  trees  to  the  ground  in  winter  and  covering  the  tops 
with  corn  stalks,  marsh  hay  or  similar  material.  The  wood  of 
the  peach  is  exceedingly  brittle  but  the  roots  are  very  tough 
and  the  trees  are  bent  in  the  roots  by  digging  a  hole  at  the 
side  of  the  tree  deep  enough  to  reach  the  pliable  portion  of  the 
root.  Forked  roots  are  preferred  on  peach  trees  that  are  des- 
tined to  be  treated  in  this  way,  as  their  roots  are  smaller,  and 
hence  do  not  get  stiff  as  quickly  as  these  grown  to  one  central 
shoot. 

Origin. — The  peach  is  native  of  Asia,  but  was  introduced 
into  America  at  a  very  early  date,  and  in  the  last  century  was 
spontaneous  over  a  large  area  of  country  in  the  mountainous 

section  of  the  Southern 
states.  While  there  are 
many  forms  of  the  peach, 
they  are  all  classed  as 
coming  from  the  same  spe- 
cies, Prunus  persica.  Pro- 
fessor R.  H.  Price,  in  the 
report  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society  for 
1903,  classifies  the  various 
kinds  of  peaches  under 
five  heads,  although  he 
says  that  some  varieties 
cannot  be  placed  in  either, 
and  that  the  practical  ap- 
plication of  this  classifica- 
tion lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  grower  should  not  be 
concerned  so  much  about 
what  varieties  he  has  as 
about  having  the  varieties 
he  plants  of  the  proper 
group  for  his  location.  The 
Fig.  gg  -Protecting  peach  trees.  Peach  following  classification  la 
WheitCt°ene)red  With  C°rn  StalkS-  <After  taken  from  this  article: 


212 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


(a)  Peen-to  group.     This  is   distinguished  by   its   vigorous 
willow-like  branches.    Flowers  appear  very  early;    fruit  flattened 
and  much  like  an  oblate  apple;  -stone  flattened  in  an  opposite 
way  from  that  of  the  ordinary  peach;    leaves  narrow  and  long 
and  hang  on   in  winter.     They  are  adapted  especially  for  the 
Southern  states  and  near  the  coast.    Angel  and  Waldo  are  varie- 
ties of  this  group. 

(b)  South    China   group.     The   parent  of   this   race   is   the 
variety  Honey,   which   is   supposed   to.  have  come   from   South 
China,     The  tree  is  smaller  than  the  Peen-to.     Valuable  seed- 
lings of  this  group  are  Climax  and  Coleman. 


Fig.  99.— Leaves  and  pits  of  the  different  types  of  peaches.  1. — Per- 
sian. 2. — North  China.  3. — Spanish.  4. — South  China.  5. — Peen- 
to.  Pits  numbers  6,  7.  8,  9  and  10  are  of  the  same  type  as  the 
leaves  over  them.  (After  Price.) 


PEACH.  213 

(c)  Spanish  group.    The  tree  is  the  largest  of  all  supposed 
to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Spaniards;    leaves  small,  flat, 
and  hang  on  late  in  autumn;  fruit  ripens  late  and  nearly  always 
downy;    tinged   with  yellow;    nearly   always    acid   and  of  low 
quality.     This  variety  bears  heavily  in  the  district  to  which  it 
is    adapted,   which   includes   the    Southern   and    South   Central 
states.     Among  the  varieties  belonging  to  this  group  are   Gal- 
veston,  Guadaloupe,  Onderdonk  and  Victoria. 

(d)  North  China  group.     The  parent  of  this  group  is  the 
Chinese  Cling  which  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  North 
China.     The  tree  is  of  medium  growth;    flowers  large;    fruit 
large  and  white  with  a  red  blush.     Such  varieties  as  Elberta, 
Mamie  Ross  and  Carmen  belong  to  this  group.    These  are  raised 
in  enormous  quantities  on  the  high  lands  of  the  Southern  states. 

(e)  Persian     group;      of     unknown     parentage,      but     is 
supposed  to  have  come  from  the  high  altitudes  of  Persia,    Tree 
is  medium  in  size;    flowers  varied  in  size;    foliage  nearly  al- 
ways crimped,  trough  shaped  and  fall  off  the  tree  early  in  au- 
tumn.    This    tree   needs   a  long   period   of  rest.     Well  known 
varieties  of  this  group  are  Crawford,  Alexander,  Mountain  Rose, 
Oldmixon  Free  and  Oldmixon  Cling.     This  group  includes  most 
of  the  varieties  that  are  successful  in  the  North. 

Propagation. — The  peach  is  sometimes  grown  from  seed. 
Some  varieties  come  so  nearly  true  from  seed  that  they  are 
propagated  in  this  way,  but  it  is  an  uncommon  method  with 
commercial  varieties.  Budding  is  the  common  and  almost  ex- 
clusive method  used  in  growing  the  peach  although  success 
often  attends  grafting,  which  is  of  convenient  use  for  working 
over  in  the  spring  those  budded  plants  on  which  the  buds  failed 
to  take.  In  the  South  the  peach  stocks  are  commonly  budded 
in  June  and  make  large,  full  sized  trees  by  the  end  of  the  first 
autumn.  In  the  North  the  peach  is  usually  budded  the  first  year 
in  August  when  the  seedlings  will  be  about  two  feet  high,  and 
the  stocks  are  cut  back  the  following  spring.  June  budding  at 
the  North  is  not  popular,  as  the  resultant  plants  are  too  small. 

The  seed  must  be  stratified  over  winter  and  then  cracked 
in  the  spring,  if  not  already  open,  and  the  kernels  planted.  Va- 
cancies in  the  nursery  row  may  be  filled  from  the  seed  bed 


214 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


when  the  seedlings  are  very  young.  Seedlings  from  natural 
fruit  are  preferred  for  stocks  from  sections  where  the  peach 
is  healthy  and  free  from  yellows.  A  favorite  place  for  ob- 
taining peach  seed  is  from  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  where  the 
peach  grows  in  thickets.  Plum  stocks  are  sometimes  preferred 
for  the  peach  where  it  is  grown  in  heavy,  moist  soil  but  are 
seldom  used  in  commercial  peach  growing. 

Planting. — The  trees  for  planting  out  should  be  one  year 
old  from  budding,  small  but  not  weak.  They  should  be  trimmed 
to  a  straight  shoot  one  to  three  feet  high  and  all  side  branches 
removed  at  planting,  making  them  appear  as  a  mere  whip 
stick.  This  facilitates  forming  the  head.  It  saves  freight  and 
packing  if  they  are  to  be  shipped  long  distances,  to  have  this 
done  before  they  are  shipped.  Trees  more  than  one  year  old 
are  not  desirable  for  orchard  planting.  At  the  North  peach 
trees  should  be  set  out  in  the  spring.  The  distance  apart  will 


Fig.  100.    Pruning  peach  trees,    a. — Before  craning,     b. — After  pruning. 


PEACH. 


215 


vary  "with  the  locality,  soil  and  variety.  In  a  general  way  it 
will  be  found  that  15x15  feet  apart  is  about  right.  Some  grow- 
ers put  out  twice  as  many  trees  as  can  grow  well  to  maturity. 
In  such  cases  they  must  be  thinned  out  when  they  commence 
to  crowd  one  another. 

Pruning. — On  inferior  soils,  such  as  those  of  parts  of  the 
peach  region  of  Michigan  and  the  Maryland  peninsula,  it  is 
customary  to  do  but  little  pruning  and  the  trees  are  allowed 
to  branch  close  to  the  ground  and  form  rangy  heads.  On  better 
soils  it  is  quite  customary  to  cut  back  the  new  wood  severely 
after  the  tree  is  formed,  cutting  off  from  one-third  to  one-fourth 
of  the  new  growth  and  the  weak  wood  out  of  the  interior  of  the 
tree.  This  thins  the  fruit  by  removing  many  fruit  buds  and 
keeps  the  tree  in  compact  form.  When  the  trees  are  injured 


Fig.  101. — The  proper  method  of  pruning  peach  trees  injured  in  win- 
ter,    a. — Before  pruning,     b. — After  pruning. 


215  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

In  the  winter,  they  recover  most  quickly,  if  at  all,  by  being  cut 
back  severely. 

Location  and  soil. — The  peach  grows  well  even  in  quite 
poor  soil.  In  very  rich  soil  it  is  liable  to  grow  late  in  autumn 
and  the  buds  kill  in  winter.  Some  of  the  best  orchards  are  on 
very  poor  soil.  It  does  best  on  high  ridges,  especially  in  loca- 
tions exposed  to  the  north  and  west.  Southern  slopes  are  liable 
to  start  the  buds  too  early.  Where  late  spring  and  early  au- 
tumn frosts  are  prevented  by  proximity  to  water,  as  in  Michi- 
gan, the  peach  does  well  at  the  north,  but  as  the  northern  limits 
of  peach  growing  are  reached,  extra  skill  is  required  to  grow  it. 

Thinning  the  fruit. — If  the  close  pruning  referred  to  is  fol- 
lowed, many  fruit  buds  will  be  cut  off  and  thus  the  crop  is  thin- 
ned, but  in  addition  to  this,  special  thinning  is  most  important 
with  the  peach.  If  it  sets  fruit  at  all  it  generally  sets  too  much, 
and  if  all  is  allowed  to  grow  the  tree  is  weakened  and  the  fruit 
becomes  small  and  poor.  Trees  that  are  thinned  generally  yield 
as  much  fruit  in  quantity  and  that  of  much  better  quality  than 
trees  not  thinned.  In  thinning,  take  out  all  curculio-stung  and 
imperfect  fruit  as  they  are  of  no  value.  Thinning  should  be 
done  as  soon  as  the  imperfect  fruit  can  be  determined  and  after 
the  natural  fall  of  small  fruit  has  taken  place.  Thin  to  from 
four  to  six  inches  apart  on  the  branches.  It  often  requires  much 
will  power  to  do  this,  as  such  thinning  will  seem  excessive  at 
the  time  it  is  done. 

Peach  trees  bear  young,  not  infrequently  at  two  years  old. 
The  fruit  of  the  peach  is  used  fresh,  for  canning,  evaporating 
and  as  a  kind  of  cider  which  yields  brandy  by  distillation. 

Insects  and  diseases. — The  trunk  of  the  peach  tree  is  fre- 
quently injured  by  the  Peach  Borer,  and  the  fruit  by  the  Cur- 
culio.  The  diseases  of  the  peach  are  as  follows:  Brown  Rot, 
Leaf  Curl,  Scab,  Postular  Spot,  Yellows,  Rosette,  Little  Peach. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  of  the  peach.  Grow- 
ers must  study  the  conditions  in  their  own  localities  and  the 
adaptation  of  varieties  to  them.  The  most  important  varieties 
in  the  North  are  Elberta,  New  Prolific,  Kalamazoo,  Smock  and 
Triumph.  Those  most  important  in  the  South  are  Alexander, 
Carmen,  Elberta,  Greensboro,  Mountain  Rose  and  Sneed. 


APRICOT.  217 

Nectarine. 

The  nectarine  is  a  smooth-skinned  peach.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  know  that  peaches  have  been  grown  from  the  seed  of 
nectarines  and  nectarines  from  the  seed  of  peaches.  The  fruit 
is  usually  inferior  to  that  of  the  peach  in  size,  quality  and  ap- 
pearance. It  is  grown  the  same  as  the  peach  but  not  nearly  as 
successfully,  and  is  liable  to  the  same  insects  and  diseases.  It 
seems  to  do  best  in  the  Pacific  Coast  states. 
Apricot. 

The  apricot  is  a  fruit  somewhat  intermediate  between  the 
peach  and  the  plum.  The  bark  resembles  the  peach  but  the 
leaves  are  very  broad  and  almost  circular. 

Origin. — The  apricot  commonly  cultivated  in  Eastern  and 
European  gardens  is  a  native  of  Asia.  Botanically,  it  is  known 
as  Prunus  armeniaca.  The  Russian  apricot  is  a  Lardy  form 
of  this  species  having  small  fruit.  There  are  a  few  varieties 
cultivated  that  belong  to  other  species  but  they  are  of  poor 
quality  and  of  little  importance,  except  the  so-called  Chinese 
apricot  plum  (Prunus  simoni)  of  Asia  which  is  referred  to  un- 
der the  head  of  plums.  The  apricot  is  as  hardy  as  the  peack 
and  thrives  under  the  same  soil  and  climatic  conditions  but  pre- 
fers a  rather  heavier,  although  well  drained  soil.  The  apricot 
is  grown  in  Europe  and  in  a  large  way  in  the  Pacific  Coast 
states.  In  the  Eastern  and  Central  states  it  has  not  been  much 
planted  because  its  early  period  of  flowering  makes  it  sus- 
ceptible to  injury  from  frost  and  the  liability  of  its  being  in- 
jured by  Curculio  has  made  the  crop  so  uncertain  that  the  peach 
has  taken  its  place. 

Stocks. — The  apricot  may  be  grown  on  seedlings  of  the 
European  plums  and  on  the  peach.  It  is  said  that  apricot  stocks 
are  not  as  good  as  either  of  these,  especially  on  land  that  is 
liable  to  be  very  wet  in  the  spring.  Some  experience  seems  to 
show  that  the  apricot  does  not  work  well  on  the  Prunus  armeni- 
aca. 

Planting  and  pruning. — The  apricot  requires  about  the  same 
care  in  planting  and  pruning  as  the  peach.  However,  it  does 
not  need  quite  such  close  pruning  but  only  enough  to  keep  it 
in  good  form. 


218  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Picking  and  marketing  ia  much  the  same  with  the  apricot 
as  with  the  peach.  However,  it  is  generally  looked  upon  as  a 
dessert  fruit  and  is  generally  marketed  in  small  packages. 

Insects  and  diseases  affecting  the  apricot  are  practically 
the  same  as  those  that  attack  the  peach  but  it  is  more  liable 
to  injuries  from  the  Curculio,  which  must  be  carefully  held  in 
check  by  jarring  and  clean  cultivation.  Arsenical  sprays  can- 
not be  recommended  as  the  foliage  is  too  susceptible  to  injury 
from  them. 

Varieties. — The  most  popular  varieties  of  the  larger  apricots 
are  Moorpark  and  Royal.  Of  the  Russian  apricots  the  best  are 
the  Gibb,  Budd  and  Alexander,  but  they  are  little  grown. 


QUESTIONS— CHAPTER  XII. 

Stone  Fruits. 

1.    What  fruits  are  included  under  the  head  of  stone  fruits? 
2.^  What    is    the    distribution    of    plum    growing    in    the    United 

3.  What  Is  the  origin  and  distribution  of  the  Domestica  plum? 

4.  What  varieties  belong  to  the  class  and  what  are  their  char- 
acteristics? 

5.  What  Is  the  origin  of  the  Myrobalan  plum? 

6.  What  varieties  belong  to  this  class? 

7.  What  is  the  origin  and  distribution  of  the  Japan  plum  and 
what  varieties  belong  to  the  class? 

8.  What  Is  the  origin  and  distribution  of  the  American  plum? 

9.  What  varieties   belong  to  the  class? 

10.  What  is  the  origin  and  distribution  of  the  Wild  Goose  class 
of  plums  and  what  varieties  belong  to  the  class? 

11.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  Chicasaw  group  of  plums? 

12.  What  varieties  belong  to  this  class? 

13.  Into   what  groups   does   Bailey    classify  the   plums? 

14.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  each? 

15.  In  what  ways  may  the  plum  be  propagated? 

16.  What  is  the  common  way  of  propagating  the  American  sorts? 
The  European?    The  Japanese? 

17.  What  stocks  are  used  for  grafting  the  varieties? 

18.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  the  plum? 

19.  How  should  the  trees  be  set  out? 

20  Why  should  varieties  be  mixed  in  an  orchard? 

21.  How  and  when  should  plums  be  picked? 

22.  What  Insects  are  injurious  to  the  plum? 

23.  What   varieties   are   grown   in   the   Pacific   Coast   states?    In 
the  Northeastern  states? 

24.  What  varieties  are  best  adapted  to  Minnesota? 

25.  What  are  the  general  classes  of  cherries? 

26.  What  soil  and  location  are  most  suitable  for  cherry  growing? 

27.  How  far  apart   should  cherries  be  planted? 

28.  When  and  how  should  cherries  be  planted? 

29.  What  care  should  be  given  a   cherry  orchard? 

30.  How  is  the  cherry  propagated? 

31.  How  should  cherries  be  picked  and  marketed? 

32.  What  are  the  most  important  varieties  of  cherries? 


STONE  FRUITS.  /  219 

33.  In    what  sections   of  the  United  States  is   the   peach   grown 
commercially? 

34.  How  far  north  is  the  peach  grown  successfully? 

35.  Vvihat    is    the    effect    of    good   soil    for    peach    growing  in  the 
North? 

36.  How  are  peaches  protected  in  winter? 

37.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  peach  wood?    Of  peach  root? 

38.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  peach. 

39.  Into  what  groups  may  peaches  be  divided? 

40.  What  is  the  origin  and  characteristics  of  each  class? 

41.  How  is  the  peach  propagated  in  the  North?    In  the  South? 

42.  How  and  when  is  the  peach  budded? 

43.  How  are  peaches  set  out  in  the  orchard? 

44.  What  pruning  of  peach  trees  is  necessary?    On  poor  soil?    On 
?ood  soil? 

45.  What  location  and  soil  is  best  adapted  to  peach  growing? 

46.  How  should  the  fruit  be  thinned? 

47.  For  what  purpose  is  the  fruit  used? 

48.  What  insects  and  diseases  are  injurious  to  the  peach? 

49.  What  are  the  important  varieties  grown  in  the  North?       In 
the  South? 

50.  From  what  did  the  nectarine  originate? 

51.  How  is  it  grown? 

52.  Where  did  the  apricot  originate? 

53.  Over  what  territory  is  it  distributed? 

54.  What  are  its  characteristics? 

55.  What  trees  are  used  as  stocks  for  the  apricot? 

56.  How  are  apricots  planted? 

57.  What  pruning  do  apricots  require? 

58.  How  is  the  fruit  picked  and  marketed? 

59.  For  what  is  it  used? 

60.  What  insects  and  diseases  are  injurious  to  the  apricot? 

61.  What  are  the  most  popular  varieties? 


CHAPTER 

THE  GRAPE. 

Origin. — There  are  about  twenty  species  of  wild  grapes  in 
America  and  but  few  of  them  have  been  fully  tested  under 
cultivation.  No  part  of  habitable  North  America  is  found  with- 
out some  native  species  and  in  many  sections  these  are  im- 
portant fruits  in  their  wild  state.  The  grapes  commonly  cul- 
tivated in  this  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  of 
native  origin  but  in  the  Pacific  Coast  states  the  best  European 
grapes  are  grown  in  great  perfection.  They  are  also  grown 
under  glass.  The  species  commonly  grown  in  vineyards  in  this 
country  are  as  follows: 

(1)  Northern   Fox  Grape   (Vitis  labrusca),  the  species  from 
which  almost  all   of   our   popular   varieties   have  sprung.     Ex- 
amples of  these  are  Concord,  Worden,  Moore's  Early  and  Lady. 
As  found  in  its  native  state,  it  has  a  large  purple  fruit,  thick 
skin,  and  very  pulpy  meat  surrounding  the  large  seeds.     The 
flowers  are  either  perfect  or  staminate;   the  leaves  are  large, 
with  whitish  down  on  the  underside.     It  is  found  occasionally 
in  the  southeastern  part  of  Minnesota,  and  very  abundantly  in 
states  farther  east  and  south  and  in  parts  of  Canada.    The  Con- 
cord grape  resulted  from  the  selection  of  seed  from  a  wild  vine 
which  had  been  cultivated  for  two  generations  by  Ephraim  Bull 
of  Concord,  Massachusetts.    Seedling  Labrusca  grapes  are  fre- 
quently white  or  greenish  in  color.     The  cultivated  grapes  of 
this  class   have   perfect  flowers  with  well   developed   stamens. 
They  also  cross  readily  with  the  European  wine  grape,  the  River 
Bank  and  several  other  native  grapes. 

(2)  River   Bank  or   Frost   grape    (Vitis  riparia),  the  com- 
mon wild  grape  found  far  north  in  Canada  and  in  the  northern 
United  States,  is  as  yet  scarcely  cultivated,  but  it  is  probable 
that  some  of  its  hybrids  w»ll  prove  valuable  for  cold  locations. 
This  grape  has  thin,  smooth  foliage,  green  on  both  sides;  short 
jointed  wood  and  perfect  or  staminate  flowers.    The  vines  bear- 
ing the  staminate  flowers  generally  make  an  extremely  rapid 


GRAPE.  221 

growth  and  produce  a  great  number  of  delightfully  fragrant 
flowers  but  no  fruit.  This  species,  when  crossed  with  the  V. 
labrusca,  has  given  us  Beta  and  Janesville,  two  varieties  of  great 
hardiness.  From  this  source  will  probably  come  the  hardy 
grapes  for  the  colder  portions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

European  Wine  grape  (Vitis  vinifera). — To  this  species 
belong  most  of  the  cultivated  grapes  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Its 
flowers  are  either  perfect  or  staminate.  It  has  been  cultivated 
since  the  remote  past  and  has  given  rise  to  a  large  number 
of  kinds  having  widely  varying  characteristics,  but  none  of  these 
have  been  successfully  cultivated  in  the  open  air  in  the 
portion  of  North  America  lying  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
although  they  have  been  grown  successfully  in  California  and 
some  adjacent  states.  The  reason  for  this  is  undoubtedly  the 
susceptibility  of  the  roots  of  this  species  to  attacks  of  the  grape 
vine  root  louse  (Phylloxera)  which  is  abundant  over  a  large 
part  of  eastern  North  America,  but  to  the  attacks  of  which  the 
American  vines  are  largely  immune.  This  pest  has  of  recent 
years  been  introduced  into  both  California  and  Europe,  so  that 
many  vineyards  in  these  sections  have  been  of  necessity  graft- 
ed on  American  roots  to  stem  its  ravages. 

Hybrid  American  grapes. — The  poor  success  attending  the 
introduction  of  varieties  of  European  grapes  led  to  early  at- 
tempts at  crossing  them  with  native  Fox  grape  (V.  labrus- 
ca).  Among  the  first  and  most  successful  of  these  were  the 
crosses  made  by  E.  S.  Rogers  of  Salem,  Mass.,  who  originated 
and  distributed  a  large  number  of  varieties,  some  of  which  still 
remain  in  cultivation.  These  are  known  as  Rogers'  hybrids  and 
include  such  well  known  and  productive  sorts  as  Landley,  Aga- 
wam,  Aminia,  Herbert,  Barry  and  Salem.  These  have  been 
largely  replaced  by  the  pure  labrusca  sorts  of  more  recent  in- 
troduction which  are  nearly  or  quite  as  good  in  quality  and 
less  liable  to  disease  in  ordinary  locations. 

Prof.  T.  V.  Munson  of  Denison,  Texas,  has  paid  special  at- 
tention to  the  development  of  varieties  of  grapes  adapted  to 
the  Southern  and  Southwestern  states  and  has  sent  out  a  large 
number  of  good  varieties.  Among  them  are  the  following:  Car- 
man, Headlight,  Brilliant  and  others.  In  his  work  he  has  used 


222  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

a  large  number  of  little  known  species  in  addition  to  those  men- 
tioned. Among  them  are  the  following:  V.  rupestris,  V.  solonis, 
V.  doaniana,  V.  Champini,  V.  candicans,  V.  louquiniana,  V. 
lincecumii,  V.  aestivalis,  V.  berandieriana  and  V.  rotundifolia. 
Flowers  of  the  grape. — In  the  wild  state  some  species  of 
grapes  produce  some  plants  that  have  perfect  flowers  and  others 
that  have  staminate  flowers.  Our  cultivated  kinds,  that  are 
not  the  result  of  crossing  distinct  species  quite  uniformly,  have 
perfect  flowers  and  no  crossing  is  needed  to  make  them  produc- 
tive. The  sorts  that  have  originated  from  the  crossing  of  two 
or  more  species,  such  as  Brighton  and  Lindley,  often  have  flow- 
ers in  which  the  stamens  are  reflexed.  Such  stamens  seldom 
if  ever  produce  germinable  pollen  and  hence  must  be  supplied 
with  pollen  from  other  vines.  When  this  is  not  supplied  the 
flowers  generally  fail  to  set  fruit,  or  if  they  set  fruit  at  all  it 
is  very  small  and  seedless. 


fl 

Fig.  102. — Flowers  of  the  grape,  a. — Flower  just  opening,  with  cap 
pushed  off.  b. — Perfect  flower,  c.  Staminate  flower.  <J. — Flower 
with  reflex  stamens. 

Propagation. — The  grape  is  increased  from  cuttings  and  lay- 
ers and,  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  this  country,  by  grafting. 
In  California  it  is  considered  good  practice  to  graft  the  Eu- 
ropean kinds  on  American  roots  to  avoid  the  phylloxera. 

By  seed. — Propagation  by  seed  is  used  for  growing  stocks 
and  to  obtain  new  varieties.  If  vines  are  to  be  grown  in  this 
way  the  seed  should  be  at  once  sown  in  boxes  of  rich  soil,  or 
in  a  fine  seed-bed.  (The  seed  should  be  saved  from  ripe  ber- 
ries). Cover  it  half  an  inch  deep  and  protect  by  a  mulch  in 
winter.  The  plants  will  make  a  growth  of  one  or  two  feet 


GRAPE.  128 

the  first  season  and  will  show  blossoms  about  the  fourth  year. 
Some  will  have  perfect  and  some  staminate  flowers,  while  others 
will  have  flowers  with  reflexed  stamens;  not  one  seedling  in  a 
thousand  will  be  worth  anything  for  fruit.  The  chances  for 
obtaining  good  kinds  will  be  much  increased  if  careful,  intelli- 
gent hybridization  is  resorted  to. 

By  cuttings. — Grape  cuttings  are  of  three  kinds — long  and 
short  hard-wood  cuttings,  and  soft-wood  cuttings.  The  pro- 
cesses by  which  they  are  rooted  vary  greatly  in  details  but 
the  general  principles  are  the  same  in  every  case. 

Long  hard-wood  cuttings. — These  should  be  made  in  the 
fall  from  the  hard,  well-ripened  new  wood  of  the  season.  It 
is  best  to  make  them  about  eight  inches  long,  if  wood  is  abun- 
dant. The  length  will  necessarily  depend  somewhat  on  the 
distance  between  the  buds  on  the  canes,  and  when  three-bud 
cuttings  are  made  of  some  varieties  they  may  be  ten  inches 
long.  They  are  often  made  six  inches  or  less  in  length,  but  as 
short  as  this  they  are  more  liable  to  fail  from  drying  out  than 
if  longer.  They  will  send  out  roots  best  if  cut  just  below  a  bud, 
but  this  is  not  necessary.  These  cuttings  should  be  put  up  in 
bundles  of  about  one  hundred  each.  Bury  them  in  some  well- 
drained  place  with  the  tops  down,  and  cover  with  about  six 
inches  of  soil  and  a  foot  or  two  of  mulch.  Be  sure  the  soil  is 
packed  firmly  around  and  between  the  bundles,  so  that  they 
cannot  dry  out  in  winter.  In  the  spring,  when  the  ground  is 
dry,  take  all  but  about  three  inches  of  the  soil  from  over  the  cut- 
tings and  replace  it  with  about  one  foot  of  hot  stable  manure,  to 
induce  the  cuttings  to  callous.  This  is  very  necessary  to  insure 
their  rooting,  and  they  should  never  be  planted  out  until  well 
calloused.  The  same  object  may  be  secured  by  covering  the 
cuttings  with  a  box  and  sash,  which  will  confine  the  sun's  rays 
ana  so  warm  the  roots  that  they  will  start  a  callous.  When  the 
soil  is  settled  and  warm  they  should  be  planted  out  six  inches 
apart,  in  rows  two  or  three  feet  apart,  putting  the  cuttings  down 
to  the  top  bud.  They  should  be  put  at  least  seven  inches  deep 
in  most  locations. 

The  land  for  cuttings. — The  land  selected  for  growing  grape 
cuttings  should  be  warm,  light  and  rich.  Its  condition  will  be 


224 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


greatly  improved  if  it  is  warmed  by  being  plowed  several  times 
and  'has  a  coat  of  fine,  warm  manure  turned  in  before  planting. 
When  planting  on  a  large  scale  the  land  may  be  marked  off 
with  a  line,  and  a  sub-soil  plow  run  eight  inches  deep  in  the 
mark  to  loosen  the  soil,  after  which  cuttings  can  easily  be 
pushed  into  place  by  hand.  The  after-cultivation  consists  in 
continually  working  the  top  soil  and  keeping  it  loose  and  open. 
In  the  fall,  if  the  plants  are  weak,  they  may  be  covered  with 
earth  and  left  where  they  are  for  another  season's  growth;  but 
if  strong,  they  may  be  dug  and  used  for  vineyard  planting  the 
following  spring.  It  is  customary  to  dig  all  the  vines  late  in 
the  fall,  carefully  sort  them  and  heel  them  in  outdoors  for  win- 
ter, or  else  put  them  in  a  cold  cellar.  In  the  spring  the  strong 
vines  may  be  used  in  the  vineyard  and  the  weaker  ones  be  set 
out  in  the  nursery  to  grow  another  year.  (See  p.  152  on  growing 
cuttings  in  chapter  on  Propagation). 

One-eye    cuttings. — The   wood   for   these   should   be   cut    in 
the  fall  and  wintered  over  in  a  cold  cellar  buried  in  moss,  sand,, 

sawdust,  or  other  similar 
material,  or  it  may  be 
buried  outdoors.  In  the 
spring,  generally  in  Feb- 
ruary or  early  in  March, 
these  canes  should  be  cut 
up  into  pieces  having  one 
inch  of  wood  below  and 
half  an  inch  above  the 
bud.  Boxes  about  the  size 
of  an  ordinary  soap  box, 
but  only  four  inches  deep 
and  having  holes  for  drain- 
age, should  be  prepared  by 
putting  in  one  and  a  half 
inches  of  rich  soil  and  then 
about  the  same  amount  of 
clean  sand  on  top  of  it. 

The  cuttings  should  be  set  deep  enough  in  the  sand  to  just  cover 
the  bud,  putting  them  two  inches  apart  each  way.  The  boxes 


CSS,*"* 


GRAPE.  225 

may  now  be  put  in  a  gentle  hot-bed,  or  on  a  greenhouse  bench, 
and  kept  moist.  They  should  be  rooted  in  about  six  weeks. 
When  they  have  made  a  good  root  growth  they  should  be  plant- 
ed, after  the  soil  is  warm,  in  rich  soil  outdoors.  The  time  for 
this  will  be  as  late  as  the  latter  part  of  May  in  this  section. 
Very  nice  plants  may  be  grown  in  this  way,  but  they  do  not 
make  as  strong  a  growth  the  first  year  as  plants  from  long  cut- 
tings, and  often  need  a  second  year  in  the  nursery  before  they  are 
large  enough  for  transplanting  to  the  vineyard. 

Soft-wood  cuttings.  —  These  are  made  from  the  green  wood 
taken  off  while  the  plant  is  growing.  They  are  rooted  in  sand 
in  much  the  same  way  that  florists  root  cuttings  of  geraniums, 
fuchsias,  etc.  It  is  a  method  used  only  where  wood  is  very  valu- 
able, and  as  a  means  of  increasing  new  varieties.  Plants  grown 
this  way  are  apt  to  start  slowly  and  to  be  weak  until  well  start- 
ed, and  should  not  be  used  when  those  grown  from  hard-wood 
can  be  obtained. 

Layering.  —  This  is  the  simplest,  surest  and  easiest  method 
of  increasing  the  grape,  and  is  the  best  way  to  grow  it  where 
but  few  vines  are  wanted.  There  are  two  kinds  of  layers,  called 
spring  and  summer  layers  from  the  season  in  which  they  are 
made. 

Summer  layers  are  made  in  the  summer,  generally  the  last 
of  July,  from  a  branch  of  the  same  season's  growth.  They  are 
likely  to  be  weak  for  several  years,  and  do  not  make  as  good 
plants  as  spring  layers.  In  making  them  the  wood  should  be 
slit  for  an  inch  or  so  near  the  buds  that  are  covered.  Bury 
about  one  foot  of  the  cane  four  inches  deep  in  the  ground  and 
it  will  be  rooted  by  late  autumn,  when  it  may  be  treated  as 

recommended  for  weak  year- 
ling vines  grown  from  hard- 
wood cuttings. 

Spring  Layers.  —  These  may 
be  made  by  laying  down  any 
cane  early  in  the  spring.  It 
wil1  root  in  one  season  and  bv 


k   i 


fall  will  have  made   a  good 
Fig.l04.-0rdinavryn<]ayer  of  a  grape    ^^  Qf 


22fi 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


be  cut  from  the  main  cane,  and  if  strong  enough  may  be  divided 
into  two  plants.  By  a  little  different  treatment  of  the  spring  lay- 
er, a  vine  may  be  grown  from  each  bud  on  the  layered  cane.  For 
this  purpose  some  thrifty  cane  should  be  selected  in  autumn, 
pruned  of  its  laterals  and  buried.  In  the  spring  it  should  be 
uncovered  and  only  one  shoot  permitted  to  grow  from  each 
joint.  After  the  new  growth  has  started  about  six  inches  from 
each  bud,  the  wnole  cane  should  be  layered  about  four  inches 

deep,  handling  it  carefully  so 
as  not  to  break  the  new 
growth.  Fig.  10G  shows  such 
a  layer  after  it  has  rooted.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  cover  it  not 
more  than  three  inches  at 
first  and  to  fill  up  the  trench 

Fig.  105—  Ordinary    layer    of   grape      as  soon  as  the  shoots  grow.  It 
CtPart   and    madC    int°    tW° 


lnt 


covered  four  inches  deep  at 
once,  the  young  growth  will 
sometimes  rot,  though  this  seldom  happens,  and  some  skillful 
growers  fill  the  trench  full  at  once.  In  the  autumn  roots  will  be 
found  growing  from  each  joint  and  these  may  be  cut  apart  and 
treated  as  recommended  for  weak  vines  grown  from  cuttings. 
If  this  method  of  propagation  is  to  be  used  to  some  consider- 
able extent,  vines  should  be  grown  especially  for  the  purpose. 
It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  use  fruiting  vines  for  layering  to  any 
great  extent,  though  it  may  be  safely  done  in  a  small  way. 
For  directions  as  to  grafting  the  grape  see  chapter  on  Propaga- 
tion. 


Fig.  106. — Layering  grapes.     Showing  how   to   get  a  plant  from   each 
bud   of  the   cane  layered. 


GRAPE.  227 

Location  of  the  vineyard. — Some  of  the  hardy,  early  ripen- 
ing but  inferior  grapes  will  mature  in  almost  any  situation,  but 
the  better  kinds  need  a  warm  exposure  and  free  circulation  of 
the  air  about  them  to  insure  their  ripening  each  year.  High 
southern  slopes  generally  offer  the  best  locations;  in  such 
places  there  is  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  in  summer,  very 
general  immunity  from  the  late  frosts  of  spring  or  the  early 
frosts  of  autumn,  and  a  movement  of  the  air  at  all  times;  all 
of  which  are  important  matters  in  growing  grapes.  Other  slopes, 
and  even  level  land,  may  be  successfully  used  for  this  purpose, 
but  on  northern  exposures,  the  fruit  will  be  later  in  ripening 
than  if  in  situations  where  the  plants  receive  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  However,  excellent  fruit  may  often  be  grown  on  a 
northern  slope  if  it  is  near  some  large  body  of  water,  which 
will  help  maintain  an  equal  temperature,  and  especially  to  keep 
off  the  early  frosts  of  autumn.  In  a  vineyard  closely  shut  in 
so  that  the  foliage  of  the  vines  does  not  dry  off  quickly  after 
summer  showers,  it  will  be  found  very  difficult  to  grow  many 
of  our  better  kinds  of  grapes  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of 
fungus  diseases  in  such  places.  The  cutting  away  of  a  belt 
of  trees  surrounding  a  vineyard,  so  as  to  allow  a  free  move- 
ment of  air  through  the  vines  at  all  times,  has  often  been  the 
means  of  making  the  difference  between  failure  and  success  in 
growing  grapes. 

Soil. — The  best  soil  for  a  vineyard  is  a  rich  gravelly  or 
sandy  loam,  with  an  open  clay  sub-soil;  but  a  somewhat  clayey 
loam  will  do  very  well  if  sufficiently  drained  to  remove  excess 
of  moisture.  Before  planting,  the  land  should  be  thoroughly 
prepared  by  plowing  and  harrowing  until  in  the  best  condition. 
Where  there  is  not  good  surface  drainage,  as  on  some  prairie 
farms,  it  will  be  found  a  good  plan  to  plant  the  vines  on  ridges 
made  by  turning  six  furrows  back  to  back.  In  other  locations 
the  land  should  be  kept  smooth.  A  limestone  soil  or  loess  loam 
is  almost  ideal  for  the  grape. 

The  best  vines  for  planting  are  strong  one-year  or  thrifty 
two-year-old  plants  from  layers  or  cuttings,  and  only  those  hav- 
ing a  good  root  system  should  be  used.  Plants  more  than  three 
years  old  are  not  desirable,  as  young,  thrifty  plants  soon  out- 


228  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

grow  those  that  are  old  and  large  when  transplanted.  It  mat- 
ters little  about  the  direction  of  the  rows;  they  should  be  laid 
out  so  as  to  prevent  erosion  as  much  as  possible. 

The  proper  distance  between  the  plants  will  depend  some- 
what on  the  vigor  of  the  kinds  planted,  the  manner  of  pruning, 
and  the  soil;  but  the  strong  growing  varieties,  which  are  most 
desirable,  should  generally  be  set  ten  by  ten  feet  apart  each  way, 
or  in  some  cases  eight  feet  apart  in  rows  ten  feet  apart,  to  al- 
low for  the  growth  of  roots  and  a  good  circulation  of  air  be- 
tween the  vines.  When  the  vineyard  is  much  shut  in  it  will 
be  found  advantageous  to  increase  this  distance,  but  when  lo- 
cated in  an  airy  position  and  on  retentive  soil  the  plants  may 
be  set  eight  by  eight  feet. 

Planting. — The  most  rapid  way  of  planting  grape  vines  is 
to  furrow  out  the  land  one  way  and  mark  the  other,  putting  the 
vines  at  the  intersection  of  the  furrows.  Before  planting,  the 
tops  of  the  vines  should  be  cut  off  so  as  to  leave  only  two  or 
three  buds,  and  if  the  roots  are  very  long  it  will  facilitate  plant- 
ing to  cut  them  back  to  twelve  inches  in  length;  shortening  the 
roots  to  this  extent  does  not  seem  to  injure  the  growth  of  the 
plant.  On  light  soil  and  on  hillsides  it  is  exceedingly  important 
to  get  the  roots  down  deep  in  the  land,  and  the  holes  should 
be  made  large  enough  to  allow  the  lower  roots  to  come  about 
fifteen  inches  below  the  surface.  The  top  loam  should  be  put 
around  the  roots,  but  the  plants  should  not  be  covered  at  once 
more  than  two  inches  deeper  than  they  grew  in  the  nursery. 
The  soil  should  be  gradually  worked  in  around  the  vines  as 
they  grow  until  the  holes  are  full.  On  heavy  soils,  especially 
those  quite  moist,  it  is  not  safe  to  plant  deep,  and  eight  inches 
will  probably  be  found  about  the  right  depth  in  most  locations. 
In  planting  vines  to  be  pruned  on  the  one-cane  system,  it  is 
best  to  incline  them  somewhat  in  the  direction  in  which  they 
are  to  be  trained  on  the  trellises.  This  should  be  in  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  summer  winds. 

Cultivation. — Soon  after  planting,  the  vines  should  be  well 
cultivated,  and  some  hoed  crop  that  will  not  shade  them  may 
be  grown  between  the  rows  for  the  first  two  years.  After  this 
the  vines  will  need  all  the  land.  Cultivation  should  consist  of 


GRAPE.  229 

a  shallow  plowing  early  each  spring  and  during  the  summer. 
The  top  soil  should  be  kept  loose  and  light  by  shallow  cultiva- 
tion. Deep  cultivation  or  much  cultivation  late  in  summer  is 
not  desirable  in  a  vineyard,  and  it  may  cause  serious  injury  by 
encouraging  a  late  growth.  If  the  land  is  lightly  plowed  each 
spring  no  large  surface-roots  will  have  time  to  form;  but  if 
this  is  neglected  for  several  years  large  surface-roots  will  get 
started,  and  then  plowing  may  seriously  injure  the  vines. 

Pruning  and  training  are  the  great  bugbears  to  amateurs 
in  grape  growing,  and  the  attempt  to  follow  some  peculiar  meth- 
od has  done  more  than  anything  else  to  discourage  the  growing 
of  this  fruit  by  farmers.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  vines  will  grow 
and  bear  fruit  without  any  pruning  whatever.  Pruning  is  done 
simply  to  get  the  most  good  fruit  from  the  least  amount  of  vine, 
and  for  practical  purposes  it  is  a  very  simple  matter.  There  are, 
however,  many  systems  described  in  books,  and  occasionally 
used  in  practice,  that  are  quite  complicated  and  difficult  for 
a  beginner  to  understand  and  even  for  the  experienced  to  carry 
out  in  practice.  The  practical  points  to  have  in  mind  in  pruning 
grapes  are:  (1)  That  the  old  wood  which  has  borne  fruit  onca 
never  bears  again.  (2)  That  the  wood  that  is  formed  one  season 
produces  the  bearing  wood  for  the  next  season.  (3)  If  all  the 
new  wood  is  left  on  the  vine  it  will  bear  ten  times  more  clusters 
than  it  can  properly  develop,  and  they  will  be  small  and  imper- 
fect. (4)  If  nine-tenths  of  the  new 
wood  is  cut  away,  leaving  only  from 
thirty  to  fifty  good  buds  to  each  vine, 
the  yield  of  good  grapes  will  be  much 
increased.  (5)  It  is  desirable  in  severe 
climates  to  train  the  vine  so  that  it  can 
cv  be  laid  down  on  the  ground  with  but  lit, 


ered  for  winter  at         tie  resistance,  for  in  such  locations  it  is 

the    end    of    first 

year,  with  extra         necessary  to  protect  it  each  winter. 

fSorma&tioVnTf   th?  If   these   Points  are   borne   in   mind 

vines    is    started         it  matters  not  so  very  much  what  sys- 

tem is  pursued  in  pruning.      However, 

it  will  be  found  most  convenient  to  adhere  somewhat  clearly  to 
some  simple  system  of  pruning.    But  whatever  plan  for  after- 


230 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


training  is  adopted,  the  care  of  the  vine  for  the  first  two  years 
should  be  about  the  same. 

The  first  year  no  support  or  pruning  is  needed.  The  vines 
will  ripen  their  wood  as  well  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  as 
if  tied  to  stakes,  but  it  will  be  more  convenient  about  cultivat- 
ing if  they  are  staked.  Late  in  the  autumn  of  this  year,  all  of 
the  vines  should  be  cut  away  except  three  or  four  buds  as  shown 
in  fig.  107,  unless  the  wood  is  exceedingly  firm  and  ripe,  in  which 
case  it  may  be  practical  to  start  forming  the  vine  the  first 
year.  The  vine  should  be  covered  with  a  mound  of  earth  four 
or  five  inches  deep.  Later  on,  before  severe  weather  sets  in,  it 
is  a  good  plan  in  the  more  northern  states  to  apply  a  covering 
of  mulch  two  or  three  inches  in  depth,  of  straw  or  litter  of  some 
sort.  This  mulching  is  absolutely  necessary  to  insure  the  winter- 
ing of  newly  transplanted  vines. 

Trellis. — The  following  spring,  a  trellis  should  be  built  un- 
less stakes  were  set  the 
first  year,  when  they  may 
be  used  again  and  the 
work  of  putting  up  a  trel- 
lis be  deferred  until  the 
opening  of  the  third  year. 
The  most  desirable  kinds 
to  use  will  depend  upon 
the  method  of  training  fol- 
lowed. 

Spur  is  a  term  used  to 
indicate  the  short  stubs  of 
the  lateral  canes  that  re- 
main on  the  main  cane 
after  pruning,  from  which 

the  new   growth  starts.     It   is   generally   desirable   to   keep   the 
spurs  as  short  as  possible. 

Systems  of  Training  and  Pruning  the  Grape. 
There  are  two  fundamental  systems  used  in  training  the 
grape,  which  underlie  all  methods  in  common  use.  In  one  sys- 
tem the  shoots  are  trained  upward  from  the  cane.  This  is  call- 
ed the  upright  system  and  embraces  a  large  number  of  methods. 
In  the  other,  or  drooping  system,  the  shoots  are  allowed  to  hang 


Fig.  108. — Spur  of  a  Grape  Vine. 


GRAPE.  231 

naturally  from  the  cane  from  which  they  grow.  The  upright 
methods  have  been  more  widely  used  than  the  drooping  meth- 
ods although  they  are  more  expensive  in  practice,  since  they  gen- 
erally require  a  more  elaborate  trellis  and  the  labor  of  pruning 
and  training  is  much  greater.  Further,  some  of  our  strong  grow- 
ing vines  produce  more  fruit  when  trained  on  the  drooping  than 
on  the  upright  system,  but  there  is  still  quite  a  difference  of 
opinion  among  commercial  growers  as  to  the  relative  merits  of 
each,  so  it  is  certain  that  good  results  are  obtained  by  both  of 
them. 

The  single  post  method  is  the  simplest  method  of  pruning 
the  grape  on  the  upright  system.     In  this,  generally  two  canes 


Fig.  109.— Pruning  grape  vines.     Vine  treated  on  high  renewal  system 
at  end  of  the  season. 

are  selected  and  wound  about  the  post,  each  in  opposite  direc- 
tions and  tied  in  place.  In  pruning  in  after  years  these  canes 
are  preserved  and  the  canes  that  grow  from  them  are  shortened 
back  to  two  or  three  buds.  The  advantage  of  this  method  con- 
sists in  the  fact  that  it  permits  cultivation  of  the  vineyard  both 
ways  and  in  the  cheapness  of  the  support.  Its  disadvantages 


232  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

are  that  probably  the  vines  are  too  crowded  and  the  foliage  and 
fruit  do  not  have  the  best  chance  to  develop.  This  crowding 
also  encourages  disease. 

High  renewal  method  of  training  is  a  form  of  the  upright 
system  that  is  extensively  and  successfully  employed  on  a  large 
scale.  It  starts  the  branching  of  the  vine  at  about  twenty-fojur 
inches  from  the  ground,  which  is  the  height  of  the  lower  wire 
of  the  trellis.  A  single  stem  is  carried  up  to  the  wire  where 
it  branches  and  its  two  arms  are  trained  in  opposite  directions 
along  the  wire.  In  this  style  of  training,  the  end  of  the  second 
season  will  find  the  vine  with  two  well  developed  canes  extended 
on  the  lower  wire  of  the  trellis.  These  should  be  cut  back  at 
pruning  time  to  firm,  strong  wood.  At  the  beginning  of  the  third 
season,  the  buds  on  this  wood  will  start  and  form  canes  that 
should  be  trained  upward  and  be  tied  to  the  second  wire.  Tha 
third  wire  is  generally  put  up  during  the  second  season,  although 
it  is  very  likely  that  it  will  not  be  needed  until  the  following 
year.  Some  of  the  upright  shoots  will  bear  a  little  fruit  the  third 
season  but  unless  the  growth  is  very  strong,  this  should  not  be 
permitted.  At  the  end  of  the  third  season,  all  the  vine  is  cut 
away  except  two  strong  canes  nearest  the  center  of  the  vine, 
which  are  merely  cut  back  to  firm  wood  and  extended  along  the 
lower  wire.  It  is  from  these  canes  that  the  vine  starts  the  next 
year.  The  subsequent  training  of  the  vine  is  a  continued  suc- 
cession of  preserving  the  two  best  central  shoots  and  the  cutting 
away  of  all  the  rest  of  the  vine.  If  the  two  central  shoots  are 
not  strong  enough,  the  nearest  strong  shoots  are  preserved. 


Fig.110.— Vine  in  Figure  109  after  pruning. 


GRAPE.  233 

In  the  case  of  strong  growing  varieties  of  grapes  like  the 
Concord  and  Worden,  it  is  customary  to  leave  more  than  two 
canes  in  pruning;  often  four  and  occasionally  six  are  left.  When 
four  are  left,  two  are  often  tied  together  along  the  bottom  wire. 
If  six  are  used,  the  two  extra  canee  are  tied  along  the  second 
wire  in  the  same  manner. 

The  amount  of  wood  that  should  be  left  on  a  vine  after  prun- 
ing will  depend  upon  the  vigor  of  the  variety  grown.  In  the 
cane  of  the  weak  growing  sorts,  like  the  Delaware,  from  twenty 
to  thirty  buds  should  be  left  on  the  vine  after  pruning.  This 
means  that  all  the  buds  left  on  the  new  wood  shall  not  be  more 
than  this  number  on  the  whole  vine  and  these  shall  be  on  two 
or  more  canes.  In  the  case  of  strong  growing  kinds  like  the 
Concord,  as  many  as  ten  or  twelve  buds  may  be  carried  on  each 
cane  and  four  canes  may  be  left.  In  other  words,  such  vines 
may  safely  carry  from  forty  to  fifty  buds  each  year.  In  any 
case,  a  weak  vine  should  have  fewer  buds  left  than  a  strong  vine. 
•  As  the  vine  acquires  age,  the  spurs  at  the  top  of  the  trunk 
get  weak.  It  is  customary  then  to  encourage  a  shoot  from  near 
the  ground  and  treat  it  much  the  same  as  if  it  were  a  new  young 
vine  and  from  it  form  a  new  top.  The  second  year  after  it  is 
well  started,  i.  e.,  when  it  is  in  good  bearing  condition,  the  old 
cane  may  be  cut  away  and  the  young  vine  allowed  to  take  its 
place.  A  top  will  retain  its  vigor  six  or  eight  years  under  ordi- 
nary treatment  but  seldom  much  longer,  although  the  roots  will 
still  be  vigorous  and  will  form  several  successive  tops. 

The  high  renewal  method  requires  much  more  tying  than  any 
of  the  forms  of  the  drooping  system  of  training.  In  doing  this, 
the  vine  should  be  firmly  tied  to  the  trellis  and  the  new  growth, 
as  it  reaches  it,  should  be  tied  to  the  second  wire  and  later  to 
the  third  wire.  It  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  vineyard  sev- 
eral times  each  season  to  accomplish  this.  All  shoots  do  not 
start  with  the  same  vigor,  but  after  they  have  reached  the  up- 
per wire  and  are  well  tied  they  are  allowed  to  hang  down  and 
need  no  further  pruning  or  tying. 

In  the  case  of  the  drooping  method  of  training  the  only  tying 
that  is  ordinarily  practiced  is  that  of  tying  the  main  cane  very 
strongly  to  the  wire.  In  this  method,  the  vines  are  trained  un- 


234 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


til  the  canes  reach  the  upper  wire,  after  which  no  further  train- 
ing is  given  and  the  summer  shoots  are  allowed  to  hang  from  the 
upper  wire. 

In  tying  the  canes,  and  especially  in  tying  the  main  arms, 
allowance  should  be  made  for  their  growth  or  they  may  be  gir- 
dled. They  should  be  tied  loosely  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  roping,  cotton  warp,  green  Kentucky  Blue  grass 
or  even  willow  twigs. 

The  One-Cane  Spur  Renewal  Method. 

The  one-cane  spur  renewal  method  of  pruning  is  a  form  of 
the  upright  system  that  is  adapted  to  sections  where  vines  must 


Fig.  lit. — Method  of  forming  vine  trained  on  one  cane   spur  renewal 
system. 

be  laid  down  in  winter,  although  some  of  the  Labrusca  sorts  seem 
to  fruit  better  when  they  are  not  pruned  so  close  as  is  necessary 
in  adhering  to  this  system.  Its  chief  advantage  is  that  the  vine 
is  trained  close  to  the  ground  where  it  may  be  easily  laid  down 
and  covered  with  earth  in  winter. 

Trellis. — A  form  of  trellis  well  adapted  to  the  upright  and 
fan  methods  may  be  made  by  setting  posts  sixteen  feet  apart  in 
the  row,  and  using  four  wires  of  No.  12  galvanized  iron,  putting 
the  lowest  one  about  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground,  and  those 


GRAPE. 


235 


above  ten  inches  apart.  The  wires  should  be  securely  fastened 
to  one  end  post  passing  through  the  other  end  and  through  sta- 
ples driven  in  the  inside  posts,  so  as  to  allow  the  wires  free  play 
through  them.  This  method  allows  loosening  of  the  wires  in 
autumn  and  tightening  of  them  in  summer.  The  form  of  trellis 
best  adapted  to  the  Kniffen  and  Munson  methods  will  be  found 
described  under  those  heads. 

The  second  year  after  planting  and  as  tsoon  as  the  weather 
is  settled  the  vine  should  be  uncovered,  using  a  garden  fork, 
which  is  the  best  tool  for  this  purpose.  Permit  only  one  cane  to 
grow,  and  that  the  strongest  which  starts.  Rub  off  all  the  other 
buds  that  show  while  they  are  small.  Tie  the  cane,  as  it  grows,  to 
stakes  or  wires  and  if  it  grows  rapidly,  pinch  off  the  top  once 
when  it  reaches  the  upper  wire. 

The  pruning  in  the  fall  of  the  second  year  should  consist  in 
cutting  off  all  the  laterals — in  other  words,  in  cutting  off  all  tne 


Fig.    112 — Pruning   grape  vines.     Old  vine  trained  on  one  cane   spur 
renewal    system. 


236  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

side  branches  close  to  the  main  cane.  In  pruning  the  main  cane, 
leave  about  two-thirds  of  the  growth  it  has  made  but  not  more 
than  four  feet  long.  The  vine  should  then  be  buried  as  directed 
for  the  previous  year,  and  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  bend  it 
as  low  as  possible.  To  do  this  to  the  best  advantage,  take  away 
a  little  soil  from  near  the  vine,  to  permit  part  of  the  bend  to  come 
near  the  ground.  As  the  vine  gets  older  and  stiffer,  it  will  bend 
most  easily  and  safely  below  ground. 

Third  season. — The  third  spring  the  cane  should  be  tied  along 
the  lower  wire  (fig.  112).  If  it  has  wintered  well  two  shoots  will 
start  at  nearly  every  joint.  As  soon  as  these  are  three  or  four 
inches  long  the  weakest  should  be  broken  off  und  only  the  strong- 
est ones,  that  come  about  ten  inches  apart,  be  allowed  to  grow. 
In  selecting  these  shoots  preference  should  always  be  given  to 
those  coming  out  on  the  upper  side  of  the  main  cane.  As  these 
shoots  push  upwards  they  should  be  carefully  tied  to  the  wires, 
and  when  they  have  reached  the  top  of  the  trellis  each  of  them 
should  be  pinched  off  at  the  end.  This  pruning  will  check  the 
growth  a  little  and  result  in  the  fruit  buds  being  formed  nearer 
the  main  cane  than  they  would  if  not  checked.  Further  pinch- 
ing is  sometimes  practiced  when  the  finest  bunches  of  fruit  are 
wanted,  but  for  practical  purposes  one  pinching  is  enough,  and 
some  large,  successful  growers  do  not  pinch  at  all,  though  it  is 
probably  a  mistake  not  to  pinch  once,  if  this  system  of  pruning 
is  followed. 

If  the  vine  is  thrifty  it  will  bear  several  pounds  of  fruit  this 
year.  As  soon  as  convenient  after  gathering  the  ripe  fruit  the 
vines  may  be  pruned.  It  is  not  necessary  to  wait  for  a  frost  to 
kill  the  leaves,  and  it  will  not  do  any  harm  to  bury  with  some  of 
the  leaves  on  the  vine.  Where  one  has  but  few  vines  it  is  best 
to  wait  until  there  is  danger  of  the  ground  freezing  hard  before 
laying  them  down,  but  in  large  vineyards  it  is  not  practicable  to 
wait  so  late,  and  the  work  must  commence  earlier.  In  pruning 
the  third  fall,  first  select  a  cane  near  the  extremity  of  the  main 
cane  and  cut  it  off  at  a  length  sufficient  to  reach  the  next  vine 
on  the  trellis.  This  cane  must  be  tied  to  the  lower  wire  the 
following  (or  fourth)  spring,  and  will  complete  the  permanent 
main  cane,  fig.  114.  The  rest  of  the  pruning  this  fall  will  con- 


GRAPE.  237 

sist  of  cutting  away  all  but  from  three  to  six  buds  of  the  other 
shoots  that  have  grown  from  the  main  cane.  In  pruning  do  not 
cut  nearer  than  within  one  inch  of  any  bud,  to  avoid  winter  kill- 
ing. Bury  as  directed. 

The  following  spring  each  of  the  buds  left  will  start  shoots; 
two  vigorous  ones  should  be  selected  from  those  nearest  the  main 
cane  and  the  others  rubbed  off.  The  pruning  in  after  years  will 
be  a  repetition  of  this  cutting  of  the  canes  back  to  several  buds 
in  autumn  and  allowing  two  shoots  to  start  from  each  spur  each 
spring. 

The   Kniffen  Method  of  Training. 

The  Kniffen  method  of  training  the  grape  is  a  form  of  the 
drooping  system.  This  is  a  method  of  training  which  originated 
in  the  Hudson  valley,  perhaps  fifty  years  ago,  and  which  is  now 
widely  used  since  it  gives  good  results  and  requires  less  expense, 
in  the  items  of  support  and  tying,  than  any  others.  It  is  especial- 
ly adapted  to  strong  growing  varieties  of  grapes  and  to  those  of 
drooping  habits.  In  this  method  a  trellis  with  two  wires  is  com- 
monly used  and  these  are  respectively  Z%  and  5%  feet  from  the 
ground.  It  is  especially  important  to  have  the  end  posts  set  sol- 
id in  the  ground  and  well  braced.  The  intermediate  posts  are 
generally  driven  and  they  usually  stand  about  twenty  feet  apart, 
which  allows  for  a  post  between  every  other  vine,  if  they  are 
set  ten  feet  apart — the  common  distance  between  them.  Vine- 
yardists  often  grow  their  vines  two  years  on  stakes  before  put- 
ting up  the  trellis  when  following  this  method. 

Four-cane  Kniffen  system. — In  this  method  a  single  cane  is 
carried  up  the  trellis  to  the  top  wire  and  two  canes  are  trained 
outward  from  side  spurs  at  each  wire.  The  vine  has  then  four 
horizontal  canes  tied  to  two  wires.  These  are  far  enough  from 
the  ground  so  that  the  drooping  new  growth  is  pretty  well  out 
of  the  way  in  cultivation.  The  pruning  of  vines  on  the  Kniffen 
system  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  High  Renewal 
system.  Each  year  all  the  tops  are  cut  away  except  the  four 
best  canes  nearest  to  the  trunk  and  these  are  cut  back  to  sound, 
firm  wood,  extended  on  the  wires  and  tied  the  following  spring. 
In  case  the  canes  nearest  the  trunk  are  not  strong  enough  for 
main  canes,  these  may  be  cut  back  to  one  or  two  buds  (i.  e.,  to 


238 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


spurs),  and  the  nearest  strong  cane  used  to  form  the  vine.  The 
following  season  the  shoots  growing  from  these  spurs  will  prob- 
ably be  strong  enough  to  be  used  to  renew  the  vines.  As  the 
vines  become  well  established,  it  is  customary  to  leave  the  upper 
renewal  canes  longer  than  the  lower.  Under  this  method  a 


Fig.    113. — One  form  of  the  four  cane  Kniffen   system   of  training 
the   grape. 

strong  growing  variety,  like  Concord,  should  be  allowed  ten  buds 
for  each  of  the  canes  on  the  upper  and  five  buds  each  for  those 
on  the  lower  wire  or  a  total  of  fifty  buds  for  each  vine,  while 
such  varieties  as  Delaware  should  not  bear  more  than  thirty 
buds.  There  is  no  summer  pruning  practiced  in  the  Kniffen 
method  although  the  young,  superfluous,  summer  shoots  should 
be  broken  out  when  they  start,  as  is  necessary  for  best  results 
in  any  system. 

Two-cane  Kniffen  system. — Since  the  greater  part  of  the 
fruit  under  the  four-cane  Kniffen  system  is  borne  on  the  upper 
canes,  a  modification  of  this  system,  in  which  the  lower  canes 
are  dispensed  with  and  the  upper  canes  left  longer,  has  come 
into  practice  in  some  sections.  In  this  case  the  lower  trunk  is 
tied  to  the  lower  wire  to  steady  it,  and  two  canes,  each  bearing 
ten  to  fifteen  buds,  are  left  on  the  upper  wire.  Sometimes  the 
lower  wire  is  not  used  at  all. 


GRAPE.  239 

The  Munson  Method  of  Training. 

The  Munson  trellis  is  referred  to  by  its  author,  Professor 
T.  V.  Munson,  as  the  Three-Wire  CanojJy  Trellis  and  is  a  form 
of  the  Kniffen  system  of  pruning.  It  is  described  by  its  author 
as  follows: 

"The  posts  should  be  of  some  durable,  strong  wood.  The 
end  posts  of  every  row  should  be  large  and  strong  and  be  set 
three  and  one-half  or  four  feet  in  the  ground  and  well  tamped. 
The  intermediate  posts,  which  may  be  much  lighter  than  the 
end  posts,  should  be  six  and  one-half  or  seven  feet  long  and  set 
two  to  two  and  one-half  feet  in  the  ground,  with  twenty-four 
foot  spaces  between  posts,  which  will  take  three  vines  eight 
feet  apart  or  two  vines  twelve  feet  apart.  After  the  posts  are 
set  a  three-eighths-inch  hole  should  be  bored  though  each,  four 
feet  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
row«s  run,  leaving  six  inches  or  more  of  post  above  the  hole. 
These  holes  are  to  admit  the  middle,  lower  wire  of  the  trellis. 
For  each  end  post  prepare  a  cross  arm  of  2x4  hard  pine  or  oak, 
two  feet  long;  at  one  inch  from  either  end,  and  one  inch  from  the 
upper  side,  bore  a  three-eighths  of  an  inch  bit  hole  to  pass  the 
lateral  wires  through,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  side  saw 
a  notch  one-half  inch  deep.  For  each  intermediate  post  prepare 
a  board  of  similar  wood  and  likewise  bore  and  notch." 

"Through  the  holes  in  the  posts  run  a  No.  11  galvanized  wire, 
fasten  at  one  end,  tighten  at  the  other  end  with  a  wire  stretcher 
and  fasten.  This  will  be  the  middle  and  lower  wire  of  the 
trellis,  and  all  that  will  be  needed  the  first  year,  when  the  young 
vines  are  trained  up  a  string  tied  from  the  vine  to  the  wire  and 
along  it. 

"The  arms  and  the  two  lateral  wires  which  they  bear  need 
not  be  put  on  the  trellis  until  after  the  vines  are  pruned  and 
tied  the  next  winter.  . 

"Each  end  cross  arm  is  placed  inside  the  post,  and  against 
It,  on  top  of  the  wire  with  notch  side  downward,  straddling  the 
wire  to  keep  it  from  sliding.  Then  take  a  piece  of  the  ;same 
size  wire,  about  seven  feet  long,  pass  one  end  through  the  bit 
hole  in  one  end  of  arm  and  fasten  the  cross  arm  thoroughly  in 
place.  The  wire  will  hold  the  arm  in  place  and  not  weaken  or 
split  the  arm  as  do  nails  or  bolts,  and  will  be  longer  lasting, 


240  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

quicker,  cheaper,  and  more  elastic,  so  that  when  struck  by  the 
hames  or  collar  in  cultivation,  it  gives  a  little,  receiving  no  dam- 
age. 

"Likewise  place  the  cross  arms  on  the  intermediate  posts, 
leaving  the  ends  of  the  wire  projecting  about  six  inches  after 
fastening.  Then  fasten  a  piece  of  wire  about  twenty-four  feet 
long  to  each  end  of  the  cross  arm  at  either  end  of  the  row  and 
draw  both  tightly  around  the  next  post  from  the  end  near  the 
ground  and  fasten  so  as  to  hold  the  arm  at  right  angles  to  the 
middle  wire.  Then  fasten  the  lateral  wires  firmly  with  the 
above  mentioned  six  inches  of  wire  left  after  fastening  the  in- 
termediate posts,  as  may  be  seen  in  fig.  114.  This  will  prevent 
the  arms  from  slipping  out  of  position. 

"Pruning  and  training  on  this  trellis  is  very  simple  and  easy, 
with  a  little  instruction  for  a  few  minutes  with  a  vine  or  two 
pruned  for  example.  The  first  season  the  vine  is  allowed  to 
grow  up  on  the  middle  wire  by  a  string  about  which  It  is 
coiled  by  hand,  by  going  over  the  vineyard  once  or  twice  until 
the  selected  shoot  of  each  vine  ks  upon  the  wire,  after  which  it 
is  allowed  to  ramble  at  freedom  over  the  wires.  By  getting  on 
to  the  trellis  the  first  year  one  strong  shoot,  and  allowing  no 
other  to  grow,  a  partial  crop  may  be  had  the  second  year  with- 
out damage.  On  all  weak  growers,  like  the  Delaware,  this 
should  not  be  allowed  to  bear  until  the  third  year.  At  the  first 
regular  pruning,  (all  pruning  should  be  done  in  November,  after 
leaf  fall,  and  never  so  late  as  to  cause  the  vines  to  bleed),  the 
vine  should  be  cut  back  to  two  or  three  buds  that  have  reached 
the  middle  wire. 

"If  the  vines  are  strong  growers,  cut  back  to  six  or  eight 


Fig.    114. — The   Munson    method    of   pruning;    a    modification    of   the 
Knlffen  system. 


GRAPE.  241 

buds  each  on  two  arms,  one  going  each  way  along  the  lower 
wire,  from  where  the  ascending  vine  first  touches  the  wire. 
After  the  vines  are  thus  pruned,  the  outer  end  of  each  arm  is 
firmly  tied  to  the  lower  wire,  along  which  it  is  gently  coiled. 
These  two  ties  hold  the  vine  firmly  in  place.  The  buds  on  the 
arms  push  and  ascend,  passing  over  the  lateral  wires,  clinging 
thereto  with  their  tendrils  and  hang  over  like  a  beautiful  green 
drapery,  shading  the  fruit  and  body  of  the  vine  according  to  its 
natural  habit.  Buds  that  push  on  the  body  of  the  vine  are  rub- 
bed off  as  they  appear,  and  after  blooming  the  tips  of  all  the 
bearing  shoots  are  clipped  off  with  a  quick  stroke  of  a  sharp 
knife.  This  causes  the  growth  to  concentrate  in  the  fruit,  great- 
ly increasing  the  size  of  the  berries.  The  four  or  five  shoots 
pushing  nearest  the  crotch  of  the  vine  should  not  be  tipped,  but 
the  flower  clusters,  if  any,  on  them  picked  off  and  the  shoots 
allowed  to  grow  in  freedom  along  the  trellis  above  the  bearing 
shoots,  to  better  shade  the  fruit  and  develop  themselves  ready 
for  cropping  the  next  year.  This  is  known  as  the  'long  arm  re- 
newal system,'  in  contradiction  to  the  spur  system  of  pruning 
and  gives  much  better  results. 

"At  the  second  year's  pruning  and  others  following,  the  old 
arms  with  all  the  bearing  shoots  on  them  are  cut  off  down  to  the 
new  arm  and  the  new  arms  cut  back  to  lengths  they  can  fill  with 
fruit  and  mature  well.  In  this,  critical  judgment  and  knowledge 
of  capabilities  of  different  varieties  are  more  required  in  the 
pruner  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  training  work.  Some  vari- 
eties, such  as  Delaware,  cannot  carry  more  than  three  to  four 
arms,  while  Herbemont  can  more  easily  carry  four  arms,  each 
eight  feet  long.  Hence  the  Delaware  should  be  planted  eight 
feet  or  less  apart,  while  Herbemont  and  most  of  the  Post  Oak 
hybrids  should  be  twelve  to  sixteen  feet  apart.  In  other  words, 
each  variety  should  be  set  far  enough  apart  so  that  it  will  fill 
the  trellis  with  fruit  from  end  to  end  and  mature  it  well  so  as 
to  better  economize  space  and  not  be  crowded. 

"By  the  third  year,  the  vines  should  come  to  full  bearing 
and  be  pruned  with  four  bearing  arms,  two  to  go  each  way  along 
the  lower  wire  of  the  trellis,  gently  coiling  around  the  wire,  one 
arm  in  one  direction,  the  other  in  opposite  direction,  and  should 
be  of  about  equal  lengths,  so  that  one  firm  tie  with  jute  yarn, 


242  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

near  the  ends,  will  be  all  the  tying  the  vines  will  need — that  is, 
two  ties  to  each  vine — the  least  required  by  any  trellis  system, 
and  the  pruning  is  also  simplest  and  the  results  every  way  the 
best. 

"Some  of  the  advantages  of  this  trellis  are  its  cheapness, 
its  simplicity,  bringing  the  work  up  breast  high  so  that  pruning, 
harvesting,  tying,  and  spraying  can  be  done  in  an  erect  position, 
saving  back  strain;  perfect  distribution  of  light,  heat  and  air 
to  foliage,  fruit  and  soil,  yet  protecting  body  of  vine  and  fruit 
from  sunscald  and  birds;  giving  free  ventilation  and  easy  pas- 
sage of  wind  through  the  vineyard  without  blowing  down  the 
trellis  or  tender  shoots  from  the  vines,  and  allowing  ready  pas- 
sage from  row  to  row,  without  going  around,  thus  getting  larger 
and  better  crops  at  less  expense  and  increasing  length  of  life  of 
vineyard  and  the  pleasure  of  taking  care  of  it." 

Training  vines  against  buildings  or  walls  is  a  good  plan,  and 
such  treatment  will  hasten  the  period  of  ripening  and  protect 
from  early  and  late  frosts.  Of  course,  the  southern  exposure 
is  always  preferable.  The  trellis  for  this  purpose  should  be 
about  one  foot  away  from  the  wall  or  building.  In  such  locations 
it  is  possible  to  mature  good  varieties  of  grapes  where  otherwise 
they  would  be  a  failure.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  a  habitable 
section  of  northern  United  States  where  fairly  good  grapes  will 
not  ripen  nearly  every  year  in  such  positions,  and  almost  every 
farm  offers  several  favorable  opportunities  of  this  sort.  The 
soil  close  to  buildings  may  not  be  such  as  is  desired,  but  it  can 
easily  be  improved,  or  entirely  removed  and  a  better  kind  sub- 
stituted. And  sometimes  what  would  be  a  very  poor  soil  for 
many  other  crops  is  just  what  is  needed  for  the  grape.  There 
are  many  cases  where  in  such  locations  single  vines  have  borne 
several  hundred  pounds  of  grapes  in  one  season. 

Pruning  neglected  vines — When  vines  have  been  neglected 
for  several  years  it  is  often  a  difficult  matter  for  the  beginner 
to  bring  them  under  any  system  of  pruning,  and  they  are  on 
this  account  allowed  to  go  unpruned  and  unproductive.  Some- 
times such  vines  may  best  be  brought  into  shape  by  cutting 
away  nine-tenths  of  the  wood  and  then  carefully  thinning  out 
and  pinching  the  young  growth  that  may  start.  At  other  times, 


GRAPE.  243 

again,  it  may  be  best  to  cut  the  whole  vine  off  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  If  this  is  done  at  the  proper  season  for  pruning  sever- 
al sprouts  will  start  from  near  the  root,  but  only  one,  or  at  most 
two,  should  be  saved.  These  sprouts  should  be  trained  the 
same  as  a  newly  planted  vine,  except  that  in  one  season  they 
will  make  a  vine  large  enough  to  bear  a  good  crop  of  fruit  the 
following  year.  By  either  method  only  one  fruiting  year  is  lost, 
but  as  a  rule  the  greatest  success  attends  the  latter  method. 

Time  of  pruning. — The  best  time  to  prune  the  grape  is  late 
in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring.  If  the  vines  are  to  be  laid  on 
the  ground  in  winter  of  course  they  should  be  pruned  in  au- 
tumn, as  doing  it  then  will  greatly  facilitate  the  laving  down 
process.  If  for  any  reason  the  vines  have  not  been  pruned  until 
the  bud'S  have  started,  it  is  far  better  to  do  it  then  than  not  at 
all.  The  so-called  "bleeding"  of  vines  does  not  appear  to  serious- 
ly injure  them,  though  pruning  when  the  sap  will  run  from  the 
cut  surfaces  is  a  bad  plan  and  generally  causes  the  bleeding 
wood  to  die  back. 

Spring  pruning  of  the  grape  should  consist  only  in  pulling 
out  the  extra  shoots  that  start  from  each  spur  that  have  been 
left  to  produce  bearing  wood.  No  matter  what  training  method 
is  followed,  the  vine  is  liable  to  produce  a  number  of  weak  shoots 
that  are  of  no  help  to  it  and  should  be  removed  if  not  needed  to 
carry  out  the  plan  of  training. 

Removing  foliage. — Under  no  circumstances  should  any  con- 
siderable foliage  be  taken  from  the  vine  while  it  is  growing.  The 
notion  that  ripening  fruit  needs  the  sunlight  is  very  much  at 
fault.  Grapes  ripen  best  where  the  fruit  is  in  the  shade  and  the 
leaves  in  the  bright  sunlight.  The  leaves  are,  so  to  speak,  both 
lungs  and  stomach  to  the  plant  and  anything  that  injures  them 
prevents  the  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

The  tying  material  commonly  used  in  tying  vines  consists 
of  raffia  which  can  be  purchased  from  the  dealers  in  garden  and 
florist  supplies.  Many  vineyards  are  tied  with  green  rye  or  even 
with  green  bluegrass. 

Thinning  the  fruit. — Under  almost  any  system  of  pruning, 
some  varieti&s  will  set  more  fruit  than  they  can  properly  mature. 
Where  this  is  the  case,  the  poorest  bunches  should  be  cut  away 


244  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

as  soon  as  the  berries  are  well  formed.  As  a  rule,  the  improved 
appearance  of  the  remaining  fruit  is  so  great,  as  the  result  of 
this  thinning  process,  as  to  make  the  operation  a  paying  one. 

Manures. — Ordinarily  new  soils  contain  an  abundance  of 
plant  food.  Grapes  do  not  require  much  manure,  and  the  best 
kinds  for  them  are  those  which  have  but  a  small  amount  of  or- 
ganic matter,  such  as  wood  ashes,  or  acid  phosphate  and  potash. 
Yet  on  gravelly  or  sandy  lands,  they  may  be  much  benefitted  by 
the  liberal  use  of  stable  manure.  Never  apply  manure  as  long 
as  the  vines  are  making  a  satisfactory  growth  without  it.  A 
very  rapid,  long  growth  is  not  nearly  as  desirable  as  that  which 
is  firm,  wall  matured  and  moderate  in  quantity. 

Bagging  grapes. — In  sections  of  the  country  where  black 
rot  of  the  fruit  is  abundant  it  may  be  profitable  to  put  all  the 
grapes  in  bags,  but  in  sections  where  this  disease  is  only  occa- 
sionally destructive  it  will  seldom  be  a  paying  operation.  But 
in  growing  fruit  for  home  use,  or  where  something  very  nice  is 
wanted,  it  will  often  be  worth  undertaking,  as  the  expense  for 
labor  and  material  need  not  exceed  a  half  cent  per  pound.  The 
bagged  grapes  have  a  little  thinner  skin  than  those  not  bagged, 
are  free  from  dust  and  spiders'  webs,  and  are  not  so  liable  to  be 
caught  by  the  first  autumn  frost.  Some  varieties  seem  to  ripen 
more  evenly  when  bagged. 

Bagging  should  be  done  when  the  berries  are  about  the  size 
of  small  peas,  and  if  there  is  danger  from  rot,  even  earlier.  For 
this  purpose  ordinary  two-pound  manila  paper  bags  should  be 
used,  such  as  may  be  obtained  from  any  grocery  store.  They 
should  be  cut  down  about  two  inches  on  each  side,  and  a  small 
hole  made  in  each  bag,  generally  by  cutting  off  the  lower  corners, 
to  let  out  any  water  that  might  collect  in  them.  They  are  then 
ready  for  use.  A  bag  is  brought  up  over  the  bunch,  above  the 
branch,  and  securely  fastened  with  a  pin.  The  bags  should  be 
left  on  until  picking  time,  when  the  bag  and  bunch  may  be 
taken  off  together.  If  the  fruit  is  to  be  stored  it  will  be  found 
that  it  will  keep  longer  in  the  bags  than  without  them.  Gener- 
ally the  bags  remain  on  the  whole  season  without  trouble,  and 
some  growers  use  the  same  bags  for  two  seasons.  Cloth  bags 
made  especially  for  this  purpose  will  last  about  four  years.  In 
France  a  wire  bag  is  used  to  some  extent  for  this  purpose. 


GRAPE. 


245 


Keeping  grapes. — The  keeping  quality  of  grapes  varies 
much  with  the  different  kinds;  some  varieties  will  hardly  keep 
a  week  after  being  gathered,  while  others  are  easily  kept  for 
two  or  three  months  by  using  only  ordinary  care.  A  moist,  cold 
cellar  is  a  very  good  place  to  keep  them.  The  bunches  should 
first  be  relieved  of  any  cracked  or  injured  berries,  and  then  laid 
one  tier  deep  on  shallow  trays  or  shelves,  so  that  the  air  may  cir- 
culate freely  among  them.  The  fruit  should  be  perfectly  dry 
when  put  in  the  cellar.  If  the  cellar  is  not  cool  when  needed 
for  use  some  ice  may  be  put  in  it  in  a  tub  and  the  windows  kept 
shut  in  the  day  time  and  opened  at  night.  If  the  grapes  are 
packed  in  dry  saw  dust  or  cork  bark  they  will  keep  even  better 
than  on  trays.  Where  cold  storage  is  accessible  they  may  be 
packed  in  baskets  before  being  stored,  but  in  any  case  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  remove  any  injured  berries,  or  they  will 
rot  and  spoil  those  near  them. 

Girdling  the  grape  to  advance  the  period  of  ripening  is  prac- 
ticed to  a  limited  extent,  but  there  is  quite  a  difference  of  opin- 
ion regarding  the  ultimate 


Fig.  115. — Girdling  the  grape.  French 
girdling  tool  which  removes  a 
section  of  bark  about  one-fourth 
Inch  wide.  Branch  of  grape  vine 
showing  where  girdling  can  be 
safely  done  on  the  portions  of 
the  cane  that  are  pruned  away. 


effect  of  the  operation  on 
the  health  and  vigor  of  the 
vine.  It  seems,  however,  to 
be  pretty  generally  conced- 
ed that  it  can  be  done  to  a 
limited  extent  without  seri- 
ous, if  any,  injury;  that  it 
generally  advances  the  peri- 
od of  ripening  from  seven  to 
ten  days,  and  that  the 
fruit  from  girdled  vines 
is  considerably  larger  than 
from  vines  not  girdled  and 
of  just  as  good  quality.  The 
operation  consists  in  taking 
out  a  ring  of  bark  one- 
fourth  inch  or  more  in  width 
at  any  time  during  the 
growing  seasoa  but  gener- 


246  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

ally  soon  after  the  berries  are  well  set.  For  this  purpose  a  spe- 
cial tool  is  often  used  which  makes  two  cuts  and  takes  out  the 
bark  with  one  movement.  If  the  whole  vine  is  girdled  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  it  will  soon  show  great  weakness,  so  when 
practiced  at  all  it  should  be  confined  to  girdling  the  lateral  canes 
that  are  to  be  cut  away  entirely  when  the  vine  is  pruned.  In  sec- 
tions where  early  autumn  frosts  are  common,  it  is  frequently  de- 
sirable to  try  this  method  of  advancing  the  period  of  ripening. 


QUESTIONS— CHAPTER   XIII. 
The  Grape. 

1.  Where  did  the  grape  originate? 

2.  Describe  the  Northern  Fox  Grape. 

3.  Describe  the  River  Bank  Grape. 

4.  Describe  the  European  Wine  Grape. 

5.  Describe  the  flowers  of  the  grape. 

6.  How  Is  the  grape  propagated? 

7.  What  are  long  hard  wood  cuttings  of  the  grape? 

8.  How  should  they  be  cared  for? 

9.  How  should  the  land  be  prepared  before  planting  the  cuttings? 

10.  What  are  one  eye  cuttings? 

11.  How  are  they  planted? 

12.  What  are  soft-wood  cuttings? 

13.  How  are  they  grown? 

14.  What  is  layering? 

15.  How  are  summer  layers  made? 

16.  How  are  spring  layers  made? 

17.  What  is  the  best  location  for  a  vineyard? 

18.  What  soil  is  best  for  a  vineyard? 

19.  How  should  grapes  be  planted? 

20.  What  cultivation  do  they  need? 

21.  What  points  should  be  remembered  when  pruning  the  grape? 

22.  What  pruning  is  needed  the  first  year? 

23.  What  is  meant  by  a  "spur?" 

24.  Explain  the   two   "systems"  of  training. 

25.  What  is  the  single  post  method?    The  high  renewal  method? 
The  Knlffen  method?    One-cane  spur  renewal  method? 

26.  What  pruning  is  needed  the  second  year? 

27.  What  pruning  is  needed  the  third  year? 

28.  Explain  the  Munson  method  of  training? 

29.  What    pruning   is    required   the   first   year,    second    year   and 
third  year  in  this  system? 

30.  Describe  a  method  of  pruning. 

31.  What   effect   does   training  vines  against   buildings   or   walls 
produce? 

32.  How  should  neglected  vines  be  pruned? 

33.  When  should  grape  vines  be  pruned? 

34.  What  material  is  commonly  used  in  tying  vines? 

35.  To  what  extent  should  the  foliage  and  fruit  be  thinned  out? 

36.  What   fertilizers   do  grapes   require? 

37.  What  is  meant  by  "girdling?"     How  should  it  be  done? 


CHAPTEE  XIV. 

THE  SMALL  FRUITS. 

The  strawberry  is  the  most  important  of  small  fruits.  It  is 
found  growing  from  the  far  North  to  the  hot  South  and  around 
the  world.  Is  is  easily  grown,  stands  transportation  moderately 
well  and  is  almost  universally  admired. 

Origin. — The  cultivated  varieties  of  strawberries  have  come 
from  the  following  species:  Chilian  strawberry  (Fragaria  chilo- 
ensisj.  This  South  American  species  evidently  enters  most 
largely  into  the  parentage  of  our  cultivated  kinds,  although  this 
fact  was  not  generally  acknowledged,  and  until  recent  years  it 
was  thought  that  the  native  North  American  strawberry  was 
the  parent  of  nearly  all  our  cultivated  kinds. 

American  strawberry  (Fragaria  virginiana). — This  species 
enters  in  a  small  way  into  some  of  our  cultivated  kinds.  It  was 
formerly  believed  to  form  the  largest  part  of  the  parentage  of 
the  best  American  kinds,  but  this  has  been  shown  to  be  a  mis- 
take. 

Alpine  strawberry  (Fragaria  vescaj. — This  is  a  native  of 
Europe  and  of  the  northern  parts  of  this  country  and  Canada. 
From  it  have  come  some  of  the  ever-bearing  varieties  whose 
praises  are  so  often  talked  of.  It  will  not  readily  hybridize  with 
either  of  the  two  kinds  previously  mentioned.  This  species  is 
not  sufficiently  productive  to  warrant  its  being  largely  culti- 
vated. The  ever-bearing  or  perpetual  varieties  are  not  desirable 
since  they  produce  a  few  berries  all  through  the  season,  but  do 
not  produce  enough  at  any  one  time  to  make  their  cultivation 
an  object  of  importance.  This  class  of  strawberries  is  generally 
grown  from  seed  but  may  be  increased  by  runners. 

Propagation. — The  strawberry  is  increased  by  seed,  runners 
and  plant  divisions.  The  plants  of  the  commercial  kinds  do  not 
"come  true"  from  seed,  but  seedlings  vary  very  much  in  their 
value  for  cultivation.  Probably  not  one  plant  in  five  thousand 
seedlings  that  may  be  raised  will  be  as  good  as  any  of  the  best 
half  dozen  varieties  now  in  cultivation,  but  there  will  be  a  good 


248  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

many  plants  out  of  such  a  number  that  will  be  fairly  productive 
of  good  fruit.  It  is  this  variability  that  gives  us  an  opportunity 
of  originating  new  kinds  that  are  better  than  those  now  grown. 

To  raise  strawberries  from  seed  the  ripened  berries  should 
(be  crushed  in  a  small  amount  of  dry  sand  or  loam  as  soon  as 
they  are  "dead  ripe."  The  seed  and  sand  should  then  be  sown 
at  once  in  a  somewhat  shaded  bed  of  rich  soil,  when  the  seed 
will  come  up  in  a  few  weeks  if  well  cared  for.  The  plants  should 
be  transplanted  four  inches  apart  in  another  bed  as  soon  as 
large  enough  to  handle.  By  winter,  if  carefully  attended  to, 
they  will  be  of  good  size  and  may  be  moved  to  the  fruiting  bed 
in  the  spring,  where  they  will  fruit  the  following  year;  that  is, 
in  two  years  from  the  time  the  seed  was  sown.  It  is  a  very  sim- 
ple process  and  may  be  carried  on  by  any  careful  person.  The 
raising  of  seedlings  is  not  often  profitable,  but  is  a  very  fa-scinat- 
ing  line  of  experimental  work  on  account  of  the  possibility  that 
one  may  develop  a  variety  of  more  than  ordinary  value. 

For  practical  purposes,  strawberries  are  increased  only  from 
runners,  which  most  desirable  kinds  produce  in  great  abundance 
when  growing  in  rich  soil.  These  runners  are  attached  to  the 
old  plant  only  one  season,  the  connection  dying  the  first  win- 
ter if  not  before.  It  is  common  to  separate  them  into  old  plants 
and  young  plants.  By  old  plants  is  meant  the  plants  that  have 
once  borne  fruit.  They  can  be  distinguished  by  their  black 
roots,  and  should  never  be  used  for  starting  new  beds  except  in 
an  emergency,  as  they  often  fail  to  grow.  The  young  runners 
are  what  should  be  set  out.  They  have  never  fruited,  have  white 
roots,  and  were  formed  the  season  just  preceding  the  spring  they 
are  set.  Strawberries  should  never  be  grown  from  divisions,  un- 
less it  is  necessary  to  save  the  stock  of  a  valuable  kind. 

Location  and  soil. — A  northern  slope  is  most  to  be  desired 
for  strawberries  as  there  they  are  not  exposed  to  drying  souther- 
ly winds,  which  occasionally  in  exposed  locations  so  dry  out  the 
land  that  the  crop  is  seriously  lessened;  also,  as  the  plants  start 
latest  on  north  slopes  the  blossoms  are  not  as  liable  to  be  in- 
jured by  the  late  spring  frosts  which  sometimes  cause  serious 
injury  to  plants  that  start  early.  Some  growers,  however,  are 
very  successful  in  growing  them  on  southerly  slopes  or  on  level 


STRAWBERRY.  249 

land.  In  a  general  way,  any  land  or  location  that  is  good  enough 
for  a  crop  of  corn  will  do  admirably  for  strawberries,  but  straw- 
berries should  never  be  planted  on  sod-land  on  account  of  the 
liability  of  its  being  infested  with  cut-worms,  or  with  white 
grubs  which  feed  on  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Manure  and  preparation  of  the  land. — The  strawberry  is  a 
gross  feeder  and  needs  plenty  of  plant  food  in  the  soil.  The  best 
fertilizer  is  barn-yard  manure,  but  it  should  not  be  plowed  in 
very  deep  because  the  plant  feeds  mainly  in  the  surface  soil. 
It  is  generally  best  to  plow  the  land  in  autumn,  turning  in  the 
manure  about  six  inches  deep  if  it  is  coarse,  but  if  partially  rot- 
ted, four  inches  is  deep  enough  to  cover  it.  The  land  should  be 
thoroughly  dragged  and  smoothed  in  the  spring  when  it  is  ready 
for  the  plants.  When  so  prepared  the  land  has  a  loose  surface 
bed  in  which  to  set  the  plants,  while  underneath  it  the  soil  is 
BO  firm  as  to  retain  the  moisture  and  yet  it  is  open  enough  so  that 
the  young  roots  can  push  into  it. 

Time  of  planting. — Practically  there  is  only  one  time  to  plant 
and  that  is  in  the  spring.  It  is  occasionally  recommended  to 
plant  in  August.  It  may  be  all  right  to  do  so  in  case  there  is  no 
strawberry  bed  in  the  home  garden  and  there  is  considerable 
moisture  in  the  ground  so  the  plants  will  live  without  too  much 
care;  but  in  ordinary  seasons  the  results  from  setting  the  plants 
at  this  time  are  very  uncertain  and  do  not  warrant  the  planting 
of  them  on  a  large  scale.  If  it  is  decided  to  set  a  bed  for  the 
home  garden  in  August,  the  plants  may  be  well-rooted  layers 
from  some  bed  near  by,  or  if  obtained  from  a  distance  they  should 
have  been  potted  and  be  well  rooted  in  the  pots.  The  potted 
plants  cost  more  but  are  more  certain  to  grow  than  layers.  The 
growers  of  strawberries  for  profit  nearly  always  plant  in  the 
spring.  The  earlier  the  plants  can  be  set  the  longer  the  season 
for  them  to  grow,  and  the  cool,  moist  weather  of  early  spring 
seems  to  favor  the  formation  of  roots.  But  they  may  be  set  as 
late  as  the  first  of  June  with  fair  prospect  of  success.  However, 
if  the  land  is  very  dry  at  planting  time,  it  is  best  not  to  plant 
until  after  a  rain,  even  if  waiting  for  it  delays  the  planting  con- 
siderably. It  is  poor  practice  to  set  out  strawberry  plants  in 
dry  soil  and  try  to  keep  them  growing  by  watering,  as  so  much 


250 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


water  and  attention  is  required  that  the  operation  will  be  found 
a  losing  one — except  where  good  facilities  of  irrigation  are  at 
hand.  It  is  occasionally  practiced  in  northern  states  to  set  straw- 
berry plants  in  autumn,  when  the  plants  should  be  covered  with 
soil  and  mulched  on  approach  of  winter.  At  the  South,  straw- 
berry plants  are  set  in  late  autumn  and  in  winter. 

If  plants  are  received  when  the  land  is  very  dry,  it  is  the 

custom  of  the  best 
growers  to  open  the 
bundles,  shake  out  the 
plants  and  dip  the 
roots  into  a  clay-loam 
mud  and  "heel  them  in" 
close  together,  putting 
a  little  soil  between  the 
plants.  When  thus 
treated,  they  may  be 
easily  watered,  and  will 
commence  to  grow  and 
be  ready  to  set  out  in 
the  field  or  garden  as 
soon  as  a  favorable  time 
offers.  If  the  space 
where  the  plants  are 
heeled  in  is  surrounded 
by  a  board  fence  or 
other  windbreak,  a  few 
feet  high,  it  will  aid 
much  in  retarding  the  drying  action  of  the  wind. 

Plants  that  have  been  some  time  in  transit  are  very  apt  to 
look  white  and  weak  when  received,  and  are  almost  sure  to 
die  if  at  once  set  in  the  full  sunshine.  They  should  be  "heeled 
in"  and  partially  shaded  until  they  assume  their  normal  color 
before  planting. 

Plants  for  setting  out  may  occasionally  be  found  to  have  the 
fleshy  part  of  the  interior  of  their  stems  discolored  by  the  win- 
ter. If  not  moved,  they  will  frequently  grow  and  overcome  this 
injury,  but  if  transplanted  they  often  die.  The  loss  from  this 


Fig.   116. — Strawberry  roots  pruned 
for  planting  out. 


STRAWBERRY.  251 

cause  may  be  greatly  lessened  if  the  plants  are  not  set  out  until 
late  in  the  spring,  after  they  have  partly  recovered  from  the 
trouble.  Cases  have  occurred  where  all  the  plants  set  early  have 
died  from  this  cause,  while  those  from  the  same  bed  set  out  late 
have  done  well. 

Methods  of  planting. — There  are  several  methods  of  planting 
strawberries.  Two  ways  are  mentioned  here,  and  they  may  be 
modified  as  the  good  judgment  of  the  planter  suggests. 

The  hill  system. — This  system  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
home  garden.  By  it  the  fruit  is  grown  to  a  larger  size  than  in 
the  matted  rows,  but  not  so  much  is  produced.  It  consists  in 
setting  the  plants  at  about  one  foot  distance  in  rows  two  and  one- 
half  or  three  feet  apart,  and  keeping  all  the  runners  cut  off. 
Managed  on  this  plan,  the  plants  become  very  large,  have  many 
crowns,  look  neat  and  pretty,  and  produce  a  good  amount  of  ex- 
tra choice  fruit.  The  objection  to  it  is  that  it  takes  three  or  four 
times  as  many  plants  to  set  out  as  are  needed  where  the  matted 
row  system  is  followed,  and  the  crop  is  not  so  large.  For  these 
reasons  this  system  is  seldom  followed  by  commercial  growers. 

Matted-row  system. — All  large  strawberry  growers  pursue 
very  nearly  the  following  plan:  After  the  land  is  prepared  in 
the  spring  it  is  marked  out  with  a  corn-marker,  four  feet  one 
way  and  two  feet  the  other,  and  the  plants  are  set  at  the  inter- 
sections. The  horse  cultivator  is  run  both  ways  until  the  plants 
commence  to  make  runners  rapidly  (about  the  middle  of  July), 
when  it  is  run  only  in  the  four-foot  intervals.  The  runners  are 
then  pushed  together  by  the  cultivator,  thus  forming  a  bed  or 
matted  row,  which  by  autumn  will  be  eighteen  inches  wide.  The 
ground  between  the  rows  should  be  worked  as  often  as  once  in 
ten  days,  and  after  each  rain,  throughout  the  growing  season  up 
to  the  last  of  September,  after  which  cultivation  should  cease  for 
the  year.  Keep  the  soil  loose  and  be  sure  the  bed  is  free  from 
weeds  on  the  approach  of  winter.  For  some  varieties  two  feet 
apart  in  the  row  may  leave  larger  gaps  than  the  runners  can  fill, 
but  almost  any  of  our  commercial  kinds  will  easily  fill  up  even 
larger  vacancies.  Such  varieties  as  the  Dunlap  will  easily  fill  up 
intervals  of  three  feet  in  rich  soil.  The  runners  should  stand 
about  six  inches  apart  in  the  bed  by  the  first  of  September,  after 
this  number  is  secured  all  others  should  be  destroyed  as  weeds. 


252  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Trimming  and  setting  the  plants. — The  plants,  when  dug, 
should  have  all  the  dead  leaves,  pieces  of  runners  and  blospoms 
trimmed  off,  and  if  there  is  a  considerable  growth  of  leaves  part 
of  them  should  be  cut  off.  All  flowers  that  appear  the  first  year 
should  be  taken  off.  If  the  roots  are  large,  they  are  not  readily 
planted,  and  it  is  customary  to  shorten  them  to  about  three  inch- 
es. The  old  roots  then  quickly  start  a  lot  of  fresh  feeding  roots. 


Fig.   117.— Strawberries.     Cultivating  the   new  bed  about  midsummer. 

If  a  great  mop  of  roots  is  planted  in  a  bunch,  a  part  of  them  is 
very  apt  to  rot.  Perhaps  as  good  a  way  as  any  to  set  the  plants 
is  with  a  spade.  This  requires  two  persons,  generally  a  man  and 
a  boy,  to  do  the 'work  rapidly.  After  the  land  is  marked  out, 
the  man  places  the  spade  with  the  back  side  away  from  him, 
presses  it  about  six  inches  into  the  moist  earth,  moves  it  from 
him  and  lifts  it  out.  The  boy  takes  up  a  plant,  separates  the 
roots,  and  puts  them  in  the  hole.  The  man  puts  the  spade  in 
the  ground  about  four  inches  nearer  him  than  he  had  it  before 
and  presses  the  soil  against  the  plant.  The  boy  finishes  the  op- 
eration by  firming  the  plant  in  the  soil  with  his  hands.  As  soon 
as  the  planting  is  done,  the  cultivator  should  be  started  to  loosen 
up  the  soil  between  the  plants.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  the  plants  from  getting  dry  when  planting  them  out. 


STRAWBERRY.  253 

Some  large  growers  have  used  a  transplanting  machine 
such  as  is  commonly  used  for  tobacco  for  setting  strawberry 
plants,  but  the  ordinary  transplanter  requires  much  care  to 
prevent  its  setting  the  plants  too  deep  and  burying  the  crowns. 
Do  not  set  the  plants  deeper  than  they  grew  in  the  bed  from 
which  they  were  moved. 

Winter  protection. — Under  whatever  system  the  strawberry 
may  be  grown,  it  is  benefitted  by  being  protected  in  winter  by 
a  mulch  of  sufficient  thickness  to  prevent  frequent  freezing  and 
thawing,  which  is  very  injurious  to  the  plants.  Of  course  a  cov- 
ering of  snow  will  answer  the  purpose,  but  it  is  not  safe  to  trust 
it.  The  mulch  should  consist  of  marsh  hay,  corn  stalks,  straw, 
boughs,  or  any  litter  that  does  not  lie  too  close  and  is  free  from 
weed  seeds.  It  should  ordinarily  be  put  on  about  three  inches 
deep  over  the  whole  of  the  strawberry  bed.  This  should  be  ap- 
plied in  late  autumn  or  early  winter,  after  the  ground  is  frozen, 
but  some  good  growers  think  that  a  part  of  the  covering  at  least 
ought  to  be  put  on  before  any  severe  freezing  sets  in,  while 
others  wait  until  the  ground  is  frozen  hard  enough  to  bear  up  a 
team  before  covering.  In  spring  the  mulch  should  be  taken  off 
and  put  in  the  intervals  between  the  plants  where  it  will  help  to 
preserve  the  moisture  during  dry  weather  and  to  keep  the  fruit 
clean. 

In  winters  when  there  is  not  much  snow  fall  but  severely 
cold  weather,  it  is  important  to  cover  strawberry  plants  much 
deeper  than  is  customary  in  the  Eastern  and  Central  states. 
Eight  inches  of  settled  straw  is  generally  none  too  much  where 
the  winters  are  cold  and  dry  with  little  snow-fall;  and  where 
straw  is  very  abundant,  as  is  the  case  where  grain  growing  is 
largely  practiced,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  use  as  much  as  this  every 
year.  This  is  especially  true  in  western  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas 
and  Wyoming  where  a  heavy  covering  will  often  make  all  the 
difference  between  success  and  failure.  However,  where  a  heavy 
covering  is  used,  it  is  important  to  set  the  plants  in  rows  at 
least  six  feet  apart,  so  that  there  will  be  room  between 
the  rows  for  the  straw  when  the  plants  are  uncovered.  It  is  then 
very  convenient  for  replacing  over  the  plants  if  a  very  cold  spell 
comes  when  the  ^flowers  are  open.  The  use  of  straw  as  here 


254  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

recommended  has  been  known  to  save  the  crop  for  several  years 
in  succession  in  some  of  the  most  severe  locations  in  Minnesota 
and  the  Dakotas. 

How  to  continue  beds  in  bearing. — Some  growers  prefer  to 
fruit  their  strawberry  beds  but  one  season.  It  is  probably  best 
to  fruit  the  beds  at  least  two  seasons,  provided  they  are  in  good 
condition  when  the  fir.st  crop  is  gathered.  If  properly  renewed 
it  will  often  happen  that  the  second  crop  on  a  strawberry  bed 
will  be  better  than  the  first,  but  generally  it  is  not  quite  as  good. 

Renewing  strawberry  beds. — There  are  several  ways  of  re- 
newing an  old  strawberry  bed,  but  perhaps  the  following  plan  is 
as  good  as  any:  As  soon  as  may  be  after  the  crop  is  gathered 
the  bed  is  closely  mowed  and  all  the  weeds  and  strawberry  leaves 
are  burned.  A  plow  is  then  run  on  either  side  of  the  matted  rows 
and  all  but  about  one  foot  in  width  of  it  is  turned  under.  The 
furrow  thus  made  is  filled  with  fine  rotted  manure  and  the  cul- 
tivator set  going.  The  plants  remaining  are  then  thinned  out 
with  a  hoe  and  special  pains  are  taken  to  cut  out  all  weeds  and 
old  or  weak  plants.  This  leaves  the  old  bed  clean  and  with 
plenty  of  manure  close  by,  in  which  the  old  plants  can  make 
new  roots.  The  plants  soon  send  up  new  leaves  which  are 
much  healthier  than  they  would  be  were  the  old  foliage  allowed 
to  remain,  and  if  we  have  an  ordinary  season  an  abundance  of 
runners  will  be  sent  out,  and  by  winter  the  old  bed  will  look 
nearly  as  vigorous  as  a  new  one. 

This  method  of  renewing  the  old  bed  has  the  merit  of  de- 
stroying all  the  diseased  foliage,  and  to  some  extent,  also,  in- 
jurious insects.  It  is  very  important  that  the  renewed  bed  be 
kept  healthy  by  frequent  cultivation  and  the  destruction  of  any 
insects  that  may  appear,  in  order  to  have  it  do  its  best  in  fruit- 
ing the  following  season.  In  renewing  old  beds  a  common  two- 
horse  corn  cultivator  will  be  found  a  very  satisfactory  implement. 
A  disc  harrow  with  the  inner  sections  removed  is  also  good. 
Either  of  these  implements  will  do  the  work  better  in  hard  soil 
than  the  one-horse  plow. 

Burning  over  the  strawberry  bed  is  very  important  where 
old  beds  are  to  be  fruited  again,  but  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  best  success  that  the  burning  shall  be  done  quickly;  that  is, 


STRAWBERRY.  255 

the  trash  should  be  thoroughly  dry,  so  that  it  will  "go  like  a 
flash."  If  the  trash  is  somewhat  moist,  so  that  it  will  burn  but 
slowly,  the  roots  and  crowns  of  the  plants  will  almost  certainly 
be  killed.  Sometimes  it  may  be  impracticable  to  get  the  tra-sh 
sufficiently  dry  to  burn  well.  In  such  cases  the  material  should 
be  raked  from  over  the  plants  into  a  windrow  between  the  rows, 
to  be  burned,  or  it  may  be  best  to  cart  off  a  part  of  it  if  the  cov- 
ering is  very  heavy. 


Fig.   118.— Flowers  of  strawberry.     At  left,  pistillate  flower;   at  right, 
perfect  flower. 

Sexuality  of  the  strawberry  plant. — We  have  two  classes  of 
the  strawberry,  distinguished  by  their  blossom.  One  class  has 
perfect  flowers,  i.  e.,  all  its  flowers  have  well  developed  stamens 
and  pistils  (male  and  female  organs).  These  can  be  planted 
alone  without  any  other  variety  near,  and  will  produce  fruit. 
This  class  is  sometimes  called  bi-sexual  (fig.  118).  The  other  class 
has  pistils  (female  organs),  but  does  not  have  stamens,  or  has 


256  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

but  very  few  of  them.  This  class  is  often  called  imperfect  (fig.  118). 
It  is  found  in  practice  that  the  varieties  with  pistillate  blossoms 
frequently  produce  more  fruit  than  those  with  bi-sexual  flowers, 
consequently  it  is  often  advantageous  to  raise  as  many  of  such 
kinds  as  possible  and  as  few  of  the  others,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  have  some  of  the  bi-sexual  kinds  near  the  pistillate  kinds  or 
no  fruit  is  produced.  Just  the  proportion. that  should  exist  be- 
tween the  bi-sexual  and  the  pistillate  kinds  is  a  disputed  point, 


Fig.  119. — Portions  of  flower  of  strawberry.  At  left,  cross  section  of 
receptacle,  showing  pistils:  at  right,  two  petals  attached  with 
three  stamens  to  a  portion  of  the  calyx. 

but  it  is  probably  about  one  to  three  or  four,  depending  upon 
the  weather  at  the  time  of  blossoming.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
when  pistillate  kinds  are  used,  every  third  row  should  be  of  some 
bi-sexual  kind,  selected  so  that  it  will  be  in  flower  at  the  same 
time  as  the  imperfect  variety.  The  neglect  of  this  precaution 
is  a  constantly  recurring  source  of  disappointment.  Some  grow- 
ers recommend  that  every  third  plant  in  the  row  be  of  some  bi- 


STRAWBERRY.  257 

sexual  kind.  The  objection  to  this  way  in  practice  is  that  the  pistil- 
late kinds,  being  often  the  strongest  growers,  may  soon  crowd 
out  the  weaker  variety;  and  then,  again,  when  this  plan  is  fol- 
lowed, the  plants  when  taken  up  are  so  hopelessly  mixed  as  to 
be  worthless  for  setting  a  new  bed. 

Dry  berries,  "Nubbins." — Sometimes  the  berries  fail  to  fill 
out  evenly  all  over,  or  are  small  and  mostly  dry  and  hard,  or  one- 
sided. This  may  result  from  the  pistils,  or  a  part  of  them,  being 
injured  by  frosts,  dry  wird,  or  an  unusually  severe  rain  or  hail 
storm  which,  by  destroying  the  delicate  pistils,  prevents  the 
formation  of  seed  and  the  development  of  the  part  adjoining,  for 
it  has  been  conclusively  proven  that  unless  the  seeds  are  per- 
fected the  fleshy  part  near  them  does  not  fill  out.  Sometimes 
the  blossoms  are  stung  by  a  snout-beetle  and  then  they  hardly 
form  berries  at  all.  Nubbins  are  also  caused  by  -winter  injury 
which  weakens  the  plants  to  such  an  extent  that  apparently  they 
are  not  strong  enough  to  fill  out  the  fruit.  Imperfect  pollination 
may  also  cause  nubbins. 

Picking  and  marketing. — If  the  berries  are  to  be  sold  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  them  carefully  picked.  Green  ber- 
ries are  bad  enough  to  have  in  a  box,  if  they  are  to  be  shipped, 
but  overripe  berries  will  cause  much  more  trouble  for  they  are 
sure  to  decay  before  they  reach  their  destination  and  damage 
all  the  good  fruit.  On  this  account  the  beds  should  be  picked 
clean  every  day  in  warm  weather.  The  pickers  will  need  care- 
ful watching  so  as  to  be  sure  they  do  not  put  poor  berries  in 
the  bottom  of  the  boxes,  and  that  they  pick  all  the  ripe  berries 
so  none  will  be  left  to  get  overripe.  It  is  always  desirable  to 
pick  fruit,  that  is  to  be  shipped,  in  the  cool  of  the  day  unless  it 
should  be  wet.  Sorting  and  grading  the  berries  after  they  have 
been  picked  will  be  found  necessary  if  a  strictly  first  class  prod- 
uct is  desired,  and  will  often  pay  if  the  general  average  of  the 
fruit  is  large. 

Gift  packages  holding  twenty-four  boxes  are  almost  universal- 
ly used  for  shipping  strawberries  in  the  Western  states,  while 
m  some  of  the  Eastern  states  the  return  package  is  still  popular. 
The  latter  cost  about  twenty-five  cents  per  crate,  including  boxes 
and  cover.  They  are  always  made  so  there  is  room  to  heap  up  the 
boxes  and  to  allow  a  circulation  of  air  through  them. 


258  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Avoiding  frosts It  sometimes  happens  that  the  blossoms, 

which  appear  about  the  middle  of  May  and  are  quite  sus- 
ceptible to  frosts,  are  seriously  injured  on  cold  nights.  They 
may  often  be  protected  when  in  this  critical  condition  by  taking 
the  mulching  from  the  rows  and  throwing  it  back  again  on  the 
plants  for  a  few  days,  or  until  the  danger  from  frost  is  past. 
If  the  winter  mulch  is  left  on  as  late  as  it  is  safe  to  do  so,  which 
is  until  the  new  growth  starts  strongly,  it  will  serve  to  retard  the 
plants  and  they  will  not  come  into  blossom  until  a  week  or  so 
later  than  they  otherwise  would  were  the  mulch  removed  early  in 
the  spring.  But  aside  from  the  risk  or  injury  from  frost,  more  fruit 
is  produced  from  plants  that  come  into  flower  early.  An  ordi- 
nary frost  seldom  destroys  the  stamens,  its  damage  being  con- 
fined to  the  pistils,  therefore,  the  center  or  berry  part  of  the 
frosted  flower  turns  black. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  vary  much  in  size,  color,  and  qual- 
ity of  the  fruit  and  vigor,  productiveness  and  hardiness  of  the 
plants.  The  flowers  also  vary,  as  has  been  mentioned  under  the 
head  of  Sexuality  of  the  flowers.  There  are  now  several  hun- 
dred varieties  catalogued  by  nurserymen,  and  new  varieties  are 
brought  out  each  year,  but  of  the  new  kinds  that  have  been  tried 
probably  not  one  in  twenty-five  has  been  worth  the  keeping,  and 
yet  we  can  reasonably  expect  that  most  of  the  kinds  now  popular 
will  be  displaced  by  better  kinds  within  a  few  years. 

It  is  well  not  to  pay  a  high  price  for  plants.  The  new  kinds, 
if  good,  are  soon  offered  at  reasonable  figures.  As  a  rule  it  is 
not  necessary  to  pay  over  twenty-five  cents  per  dozen,  or  one 
dollar  per  hundred  for  plants.  In  quantities  of  five  hundred  or 
more  they  can  be  bought  at  much  less  cost.  About  two  hun- 
dred plants,  if  well  set  out  and  cared  for,  will  give  all  the  fruit 
needed  by  the  ordinary  family.  Beginners  will  generally  be  most 
successful  if  they  confine  themselves  at  the  start  to  some  good 
bi-sexual  kind,  to  save  the  annoyance  of  caring  for  two  varieties 
which  may  be  easily  mixed  together. 
The  Currant. 

The  currant  will  grow  and  fruit  abundantly  in  almost 
any  soil  or  situation  in  the  northern  states  if  given  good  cultiva- 
tion; and  even  when  it  has  but  little  care  it  is  still  very  sure 


CURRANT.  259 

to  produce  a  fair  crop.  However,  no  cultivated  plant  responds 
more  promptly  and  generously  to  manuring  and  careful  at- 
tention. The  acid  fruit,  in  any  of  the  various  ways  in  which  it 
is  used,  is  healthy  and  refreshing.  It  is  not  so  universally  es- 
teemed as  the  strawberry,  yet  it  is  used  in  immense  quantities 
each  year,  and  first-class  fruit  carefully  marketed  generally  pays 
the  grower  a  good  profit.  No  fruit  is  more  satisfactory  in  the 
home  garden.  A  currant  bush  once  planted  will  continue  to  bear 
fruit  for  an  indefinite  period,  often  for  thirty  years.  There  are 
very  many  species  of  currants,  but  our  cultivated  kinds  belong 
to  the  following: 
Origin: 

(a)  The  red  currant  has  come  from  Ribes  rubrum  of  north- 
ern Europe  and  northern  America.     Examples  of  this  species  are 
to  be  found  in  the  varieties  known  as  Red  Dutch  and  White  Grape, 
which  have  red  and  white  fruit  respectively. 

(b)  The  black  currant  of  the  garden  has  come  from  Ribes 
nigrum  of  Europe.     Plants  and  fruit  of  this  species  have  a  pe- 
culiar chinch-bug-like  odor  which  to  many  people  is  unpleasant. 
There  is  no  great  demand  for  the  fruit,  but  in  some  markets  it 
is  much  sought  after  and  brings  a  high  price.     Examples  are 
Black  Naples  and  Lee's  Prolific. 

(c)  The  Crandall  currant  has  come  from  Ribes  aureum  of 
western  America.    The  fruit   is   purplish   black,  shining,   often 
large,  two  to  several  in  a  cluster.    The  variety  known  as  Cran- 
dall is  practically  the  only  cultivated  form,  but  it  varies  greatly 
when  grown  from  seed.     It  seems  to  be  little  if  any  improvement 
over  the  best  wild  forms.     The  well  known  Missouri  currant  of 
the  gardens  is  a  form  of  this  which  seldom  produces  much  fruit. 

Propagation. — The  currant  does  not  come  true  from  seed. 
The  named  varieties  are  grown  from  layers,  cuttings,  or  divisions. 

Seedlings  are  easily  raised  if  treated  the  same  as  recommend- 
ed for  raspberry  seedlings,  but  rather  more  care  must  be  tak- 
en with  its  seed  than  with  that  of  the  raspberry  as  it  germinates 
very  quickly  in  the  spring,  and  if  moved  after  growth  has  start- 
ed it  often  fails  to  grow.  On  this  account  the  seed  should  be 
sown  in  the  fall  where  it  is  to  grow  the  following  year.  Or  if 
sown  in  boxes  they  should  be  frozen  until  February  or  March, 


260  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

when  they  may  be  put  in  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed.  But  very  few 
seedlings  are  of  any  value,  and  the  growing  of  them  is  seldom 
attempted. 

Cuttings  are  very  easily  rooted  and  varieties  are  almost 
universally  grown  from  them.  They  may  be  taken  off  at  almost 
any  time  while  the  plant  is  dormant,  and  wood  of  almost  any 
age  or  size  will  root  if  carefully  handled,  but  the  following  meth- 
od is  generally  very  certain  to  bring  good  results: 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  have  fallen — which  may  be  in  the 
latter  part  of  August  or  first  of  September — the  young  wood 
(growth  of  the  current  season)  is  cut  into  pieces  about  seven 
inches  long.  They  are  then  at  once  set  out  in  rich,  well  drained 
soil  four  inches  apart,  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  Only  about  one 
inch  of  the  cutting  should  be  above  ground, .  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  very  firmly  pack  the  earth  around  the  bottom 
of  the  cuttings.  When  thus  treated  they  will  have  calloused  and 
made  some  small  roots  before  the  ground  freezes,  and  will  start 
vigorously  the  following  spring.  The  cuttings  should  remain  as 
planted  for  at  least  one,  or  perhaps  two  years.  If  the  land  is 
in  good  condition  they  will  be  ready  to  set  out  when  one  year 
old,  but  can  remain  where  planted  for  several  seasons  if  well 
cultivated.  If  wood  is  scarce  the  cuttings  may  be  shorter  than 
recommended,  but  in  such  a  case  more  care  will  be  required  to 
ensure  that  they  do  not  dry  out  in  the  soil.  Sometimes  the  cut- 
tings may  consist  of  a  single  bud  each,  and  may  be  sown  like 
beans  in  a  furrow,  but  much  experience  is  required  to  be  suc- 
cessful with  them  when  made  so  very  small. 

Layers  may  be  made  at  any  time  during  the  growing  sea- 
son, but  preferably  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  as  they  will 
then  be  well  rooted  by  autumn.  They  consist  simply  of  branches 
which  have  been  covered  with  earth  and  have  become  rooted. 
After  becoming  well  rooted  they  are  separated  from  the  old  plant. 
The  branches  are  rather  surer  to  root  if  the  bark  and  wood  is 
cut  or  broken  a  little,  but  most  varieties  root  very  easily  without 
this  trouble. 

Soil  and  planting. — The  currant  will  grow  in  almost  any 
kind  of  land,  and  on  that  which  will  raise  a  fair  corn  crop  it 
gives  good  returns,  but  the  soil  cannot  be  too  rich  or  the  cul- 


CURRANT.  261 

tivation  too  constant  for  the  best  crops  of  fruit.  Plants  may  be 
set  out  in  the  fall  or  spring  with  good  results.  If  set  in  the  fall 
each  plant  should  be  banked  up  with  about  two  spadesful  of  soil. 
They  should  be  put  five  or  six  feet  apart  each  way,  and  for  the 
strong  varieties  most  generally  grown  s.ix  is  better  than  five 
feet.  One  plant  is  enough  for  a  hill,  and  those  that  are  young 
and  thrifty  are  better  than  older  ones.  Where  practicable,  they 
should  be  planted  so  as  to  allow  for  cultivation  both  ways.  They 
should  not  ordinarily  be  set  along  a  fence  or  border,  as  they  are 
difficult  to  cultivate  in  such  places  and  are  often  neglected.  The 
land  should  be  plowed  lightly  with  a  one-horse  plow  early  in  the 
spring,  and  the  cultivator  started  soon  afterward.  While  the 
plants  are  in  fruit,  cultivation  will  have  to  be  suspended,  as  the 
weight  of  the  berries  will  bend  the  branches  so  that  they  will  be 
in  the  way  and  liable  to  injury.  As  soon  as  the  crop  is  gathered 
the  working  of  the  land  should  be  again  commenced  and  continue 
until  the  middle  of  August,  after  which  there  is  no  need  of  it. 

Mulching. — Good  crops  of  currants  may  be  grown  without 
cultivation  provided  the  land  is  heavily  mulched,  and  in  some- 
what dry  locations  they  are  more  surely  grown  on  this  plan  than 
on  any  other.  The  mulch  may  consist  of  straw  litter,  coal  ashes, 
hard-wood  sawdust,  or  similar  material.  If  ashes  or  sawdust  is 
used  it  should  not  be  mixed  with  the  soil  but  kept  on  the  surface. 
It  is  often  a  good  plan  to  mulch  near  the  plants  and  cultivate 
in  the  center  of  the  rows.  Ashes  or  sawdust  used  for  this  pur- 
pose will  keep  down  the  weeds  near  the  plants  and  do  away  with 
the  necessity  of  hand  cultivating.  Pine  sawdust  is  not  as  good 
for  this  purpose  as  that  from  the  hard  woods,  but  may  be  safely 
used  if  kept  on  the  surface  of  the  land  and  not  mixed  with  it. 
Partially  rotted  sawdust  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  that  which 
is  fresh. 

Pruning. — The  currant  is  improved  by  some  pruning  each 
year.  This  may  be  done  at  almost  any  season,  but  preferably 
in  August.  To  do  this  work  properly  it  should  be  understood 
that  very  little  fruit  is  borne  on  the  wood  of  the  preceding  sea- 
son's growth,  and  that  the  buds  which  produce  the  greatest 
amount  of  fruit  are  on  wood  in  its  third  season  of  growth  or 
older.  The  fruit  buds  are  formed  late  in  summer  and  open  early 


262  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

in  the  following  growing  season.  In  pruning,  the  old  wood  which 
is  weakened  by  age  should  be  cut  out  close  to  the  ground  and 
enough  new  sprouts  from  the  roots  should  be  encouraged  to  take 
its  place.  Not  more  than  from  four  to  six  shoots  from  the  roots 
should  be  allowed  to  remain.  If  all  are  allowed  to  grow,  too 
much  bearing  wood  will  be  produced  and  the  fruit  will  conse- 
quently be  very  small.  The  wood  which  is  infested  by  borers 
should  also  be  cut  away. 

Tree  currants  are  frequently  advertised  as  being  very  desir- 
able and  are  often  sold  at  a  high  price.  They  are,  in  fact,  merely 
our  common  currants  pruned  so  as  to  make  them  take  on  a  tree- 
like form.  They  appear  very  pretty  while  growing,  but  having 
only  one  stem  the  first  borer  that  attacks  it  destroys  the  plant. 
To  make  plants  take  on  this  tree-form,  all  but  one  upper  bud  is 
rubbed  off  the  cuttings  when  they  are  set  out.  The  remaining 
bud  pushes  up  a  straight  shoot,  which  is  allowed  to  branch  at 
about  a  foot  from  the  ground  and  to  make  a  miniature  tree. 
Such  plants  seldom  send  up  sprouts,  so  the  stem  cannot  be  re- 
newed. The  common  red  currant  is  sometimes  grafted  on  the 
strong  growing  Ribes  aureum,  but  such  plants  are  open  to  the 
same  objections  as  other  tree  currants  and  are  only  valuable  as 
curiosities. 

Winter  protection. — The  Red  Dutch  and  a  few  other  very 
excellent  varieties  are  perfectly  hardy  in  almost  any  soil  or  situ- 
ation, but  some  of  the  kinds  producing  the  largest  fruit  are  oc- 
casionally injured  in  severe  locations  in  winter.  They  may,  how- 
ever, be  protected  by  covering  them  with  earth,  but  if  so  treated 
they  will  need  to  be  mulched  or  to  have  some  support  to  keep 
the  fruit  off  the  ground,  as  the  canes  will  not  straighten  up  well 
in  the  spring  after  being  bent  down  all  winter.  Another  way 
of  giving  some  protection  is  to  tie  the  stems  together  in  autumn 
with  string  or  willow  withes.  This  is  very  desirable  where  the 
snow  drifts  over  the  plants,  as  it  prevents  their  being  broken  by 
it  when  it  settles  in  the  spring.  More  protection  is  afforded  by 
this  treatment  than  is  generally  supposed. 

Marketing. — It  is  customary  to  market  the  currant  in  bas- 
kets holding  about  six  or  eight  pounds,  but  sometimes  quart 
boxes  and  other  packages  are  used  for  this  purpose.  One  must 


GOOSEBERRY.  263 

study  the  local  market  to  learn  which  package  is  the  best  to  use. 
This  fruit  is  generally  sold  by  the  pound.  Unlike  raspberries 
and  strawberries,  it  will  remain  in  good  condition  on  the  plants 
for  some  little  time  after  getting  ripe,  but  it  does  not  ship  as  well 
if  very  ripe  as  when  it  is  a  little  green.  The  fruit  makes  the 
firmest  jelly  before  it  gets  fully  ripe,  and  on  this  account  it  is 


wUMi 

1MB 

,<*•«  -.,•.-. 


Fig.  120. — Currant   bushes   tied   up   for  winter  to  prevent   snow   from 
breaking  them  down. 

sometimes  most  profitable  to  market  the  crop  when  the  berries 
at  the  end  of  the  bunches  are  still  quite  green. 

Varieties. — There  are  not  so  many  varieties  of  the  currant 
offered  in  the  nursery  catalogues  as  of  most  other  cultivated 
fruits,  but  still  there  is  much  difference  in  the  size  and  quality 
of  the  different  kinds,  as  well  as  in  the  hardiness  and  vigor  of  the 
plants.  For  the  home  garden,  about  one  dozen  plants  well  cared 
for  will  give  an  abundance  of  fruit. 

The  Gooseberry. 

The  gooseberry  is  closely  related  to  the  currant  and  is 
fully  as  productive.  The  fruit,  however,  is  not  so  highly  es- 
teemed in  this  country  as  in  northern  Europe  where  a  differ- 


264  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

ent  species  is  grown  and  where  it  is  a  favorite  fruit.     There 
are  several  species  of  the  gooseberry  that  enter  into  our  culti- 
vated kinds.     The   color  of  the  cultivated   gooseberries  varies 
from  a  pale  green  to  a  deep  red  when  ripe. 
Origin: 

(a)  The  American  gooseberry   has   come   from   the   Ribes 
oxyacanthoid.es  of   America,     Examples  are   the   Houghton   and 
the  Smith.    There  are  several  other  species  of  native  American 
gooseberries  which  are  used  locally  in  a  wild  state.     The  great- 
est objection  to  this  class  is  the  large  number  of  sharp  prickles. 
Some  of  the  new  varieties  are  a  great  improvement  in  this  re- 
spect. 

(b)  The  European  gooseberry  is  Ribes  grossularia.    Exam- 
ples are  the  Industry  and  the  Lancastershire  Lad.     They  are 
not  much  grown  in  America  as  they  are  especially  subject  to 
mildew  in  this  country. 

Crosses. — There  are  a  number  of  crosses  between  the  Eu- 
ropean and  American  gooseberries.  The  Triumph  and  the 
Downing  are  each  supposed  to  be  crosses  of  this  kind. 

The  directions  given  for  growing  the  currant  apply  with 
equal  force  to  the  gooseberry,  except  in  a  few  particulars,  which 
are  included  under  the  following  heads: 

Propagation. — Most  varieties  of  the  gooseberry  do  not  grow 
as  readily  from  cuttings  as  the  currant,  and  many  kinds  with 
small,  slender  wood  it  is  almost  impossible  to  root  in  this  way. 
For  this  reason  layering  is  a  most  common  method  of  propaga- 
tion. If  the  branches  are  carefully  covered  with  soil  in  June, 
after  the  new  growth  is  six  or  more  inches  long,  each  twig  will 
be  found  slightly  rooted  by  autumn.  They  should  then  be  taken 
up  and  cut  apart  with  a  piece  of  the  rooted  main  branch  with 
each  twig.  These  little  layers  should  be  set  out  at  once  in  the 
spring  and  treated  the  same  as  recommended  for  currant  cut- 
tings. Some  varieties  need  to  have  the  bark  slightly  broken 
when  they  are  laid  down,  but  most  kinds  root  readily  without 
this  trouble. 

Planting. — Autumn  is  the  time  usually  preferred  for  set- 
ting the  gooseberry.  The  sprouts  start  into  growth  so  very 
early  in  the  spring  that  any  delay  at  that  time  causes  them  a 


RASPBERRY.  265 

set-back  from  which  they  may  not  readily  recover.  But  plants 
may  be  very  successfully  set  in  the  spring  if  planted  early. 
Gooseberries  are  grown  in  practically  the  same  way  as  currants. 

Pruning  should  consist  in  taking  out  any  superfluous  or 
weak  stems,  as  recommended  for  currants.  Besides  this,  the 
size  and  appearance  of  the  fruit  of  the  common  kinds  will  be 
greatly  improved  if  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  new  growth 
is  cut  off  annually.  However,  some  of  the  newer  kinds  pro- 
ducing the  large  fruit,  may  perhaps,  need  this  recommendation 
somewhat  modified.  Large  fruit  is  picked  and  sold  most  readily 
and  the  quantity  produced  from  a  trimmed  bush  is,  as  a  rule, 
fully  as  much  as  from  one  not  trimmed.  This  is  especially 
true  of  our  native  kinds  which  are  inclined  to  overbear.  Prun- 
ing thins  out  the  bushes  so  that  picking  can  be  more  easily 
done. 

Marketing. — Gooseberries  are  most  in  demand  when  per- 
fectly green  but  are  also  used  when  fully  ripe.  They  are  gen- 
erally marketed  in  quart  boxes. 

Insects. — The  insects  that  commonly  injure  currants  and 
gooseberries  are  the  Currant  Worm,  Currant  Borer,  Leaf  Lice 
and  Berry  Moth.  See  Chapter  VI. 

Diseases. — The  more  common  diseases  of  the  currant  and 
gooseberry  are  Leaf  Spot  and  Mildew.     See  Chapter  VII. 
The   Raspberry. 

(a)  The  European  raspberry  (Rubus  ideus).    Varieties  of 
this  class  were  the  only  kinds  grown  in  this  country  for  many 
years  and  they  proved  to  be  poorly  adapted  to  general  cultiva- 
tion here  although  in  a  few  sections,  as,  for  instance,  near  the 
Hudson   River,   they  were  a  success.     Among  the  varieties  of 
this   class   that  have  been  grown  here  are  the  Herstine,  Hud- 
son River,  Red  Antwerp  and  Superlative.    In  this  class  are  yel- 
low as  well  as  red  kinds. 

(b)  The  American  raspberries  are  the  foundation  of  com- 
mercial raspberry  growing  in  America  on  a  large  scale.     They 
embrace  the  red   raspberry    (Rubus    strigosus)  and    the    black 
cap  varieties   (Rubus  occidentalis).     Examples  of  the  red  rasp- 
berry are  the  Cuthbert,  King  and  Turner  and  of  the  black  caps, 
Gregg,   Older   and   Kansas  are  examples.     Among  the  varieties 
of  each  of  these  species  are  red  and  yellow  varieties. 


266  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

(c)  Hybrids  between  the  red  and  black  cap  raspberries  are 
common.  They  were  formerly  considered  a  separate  species 
and  known  as  Rubus  neglectus.  Examples  are  the  Columbian, 
Schaeffer  and  Philadelphia. 

Classes  of  raspberries. — All  raspberries  in  cultivation  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  the  suckering  class  and  the  tip 
rooting  class,  according  as  to  whether  they  increase  by  suckers 
or  by  tip  layers.  This  is  a  convenient,  rather  than  a  botanical 
classification. 

Propagation. — The  methods  of  propagation  vary  greatly 
with  the  different  species  of  raspberries.  They  consist  of  propa- 
tion  by  seed,  by  suckers,  by  root  cuttings,  by  tip  layers  and  by 
division  of  the  stools. 

Raspberries  from  seed. — All  the  cultivated  kinds  may  be 
grown  from  seed,  but  plants  from  seed  are  not  "true,"  i.  e.,  are 
not  like  the  plants  from  which  they  came,  and  it  is  only  an 
occasional  seedling  that  is  nearly  as  good  as  any  of  the  varie- 
ties commonly  cultivated.  To  raise  seedlings,  the  "dead"  ripe 
fruit  should  be  crushed  in  a  small  amount  of  dry  sand,  and  the 
whole  sown  at  once  in  a  light,  moist  soil,  somewhat  shaded. 
The  seed  will  seldom  germinate  until  the  following  spring  when, 
after  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  handle,  they  may,  if  too 
thick  in  the  seed  beds,  be  set  out  in  another  bed  to  grow  the 
first  season,  or  if  not  crowded  be  left  to  grow  where  they  are. 
The  plants  should  be  taken  up  in  the  fall,  "heeled  in,"  and  plant- 
ed again  the  following  spring,  when  they  will  bear  fruit  the 
following  (the  third)  year.  Another  way  is  to  sow  the  seed  as 
soon  as  obtained  in  small  boxes,  and  cover  them  lightly  with 
leaves  or  litter.  In  February  bring  the  boxes  into  a  green- 
house, transplant  to  other  boxes  as  soon  as  the  seedlings  have 
their  third  leaves  formed,  and  plant  permanently  outdoors  as 
soon  as  large  enough  and  the  weather  will  permit;,  by  this  sys- 
tem some  fruit  is  generally  obtained  the  second  year  after  plant- 
ing out. 

By  root  cuttings. — Most  of  the  varieties  of  raspberries  com- 
ing under  the  first  three  species  mentioned  produce  suckers 
from  the  roots  and  these  are  generally  used  to  start  new  planta- 
tions, but  when  there  is  a  shortage  for  this  purpose  it  is  cus- 


KASPBERRY. 


267 


Fig.  121. — Raspberry  Plants.  A. — • 
Dormant  plant  ready  for  trans- 
planting. B. — Growth  started  too 
much  to  transplant. 


ternary  to  grow  plants  of  the  suckering  kinds  from  root  cut- 
tings, which  may  be  made  as  follows:  In  the  autumn,  after  the 
plants  have  stopped  growing,  the  roots  are  taken  up,  cut  into 

pieces  two  or  three  inches 
long  and  put  in  boxes  with 
alternate  layers  of  sand  or 
loam.  The  boxes  are  then 
.buried  in  some  well-drain- 
ed spot  until  the  land  is 
fit  to  work  in  the  spring, 
when  the  roots  should 
show  a  callous  on  the  cut 
ends.  The  roots  are  then 
planted  two  or  three  inches 
apart  in  the  furrows  and 
covered  about  two  inches 
deep  in  rich  soil.  By  the 
end  of  the  season  they 
will  have  made  plants  large 
enough  to  set  out  permanently. 

This  plan  of  growing  plants  from  root  cuttings  may  be 
ereatly  changed  in  detail,  but  the  general  plan  is  the  same.  It 
Is  always  best  to  make  up  the  root  cuttings  in  the  fall,  but  cut- 
tings from  strong  growing  kinds  do  nearly  as  well  made  up  in 
the  spring.  The  cuttings  are  generally  made  with  a  sharp 
knife  or  a  pair  of  pruning  shears,  but  nearly  equally  good  re- 
sults may  be  had  by  cutting  the  roots  in  a  hay  cutter  and  this 
is  a  common  practice  where  large  quantities  are  grown. 

By  layers. — The  black-caps  and  some  other  species  grow 
most  readily  from  layers.  The  tips  of  the  new  growth  reach 
the  ground  about  the  latter  part  of  August  or  first  of  Septem- 
ber and  readily  make  new  plants  if  held  in  place.  These  tips 
should  be  covered  with  a  spadeful  of  soil,  or  better,  be  inserted 
three  or  four  inches  straight  down  into  a  hole  made  by  push- 
ing a  spade  in  the  ground.  They  will  be  well  rooted  in  a  week 
or  two.  These  rooted  layers  will  be  found  to  winter  over  most 
safely  if  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  until  spring,  but  should 
have  a  light  mulch  over  them  during  winter.  They  may  also 


268  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

be  wintered  over  if  dug  and  very  carefully  heeled  in,  or  kept  in 
a  cold  cellar,  but  the  plan  recommended  should  be  followed 
when  practicable.  It  is  not  considered  good  policy  to  plant 
the  layers  in  the  fall  as  they  are  very  liable  to  winter  injury 
when  disturbed  in  autumn.  In  digging  the  layers  about  ten 
inches  of  the  cane  should  be  cut  off  with  the  roots  to  facilitate 
handling.  It  is  generally  believed  that  unprotected  plants  are 
much  hardier  when  the  layers  remain  attached  to  the  plant  dur- 
ing winter  than  they  are  if  the  canes  are  cut  loose  in  the  fall. 

Location  and  soil. — The  common  varieties  of  the  raspberry 
succeed  admirably  in  any  good  soil,  but  the  suckering  class, 
which  includes  chiefly  the  red  varieties,  produce  rather  more 
abundantly  than  the  black-caps  in  moist,  heavy  loam,  and  the 
latter  do  best  in  a  sandy  loam.  A  northern  slope  is  generally 
better  than  a  southerly  one  as  it  is  less  liable  to  injury  from 
drouth,  which  frequently  shortens  the  fruiting  season  in  bad 
situations;  but  it  is  well  known  that  some  varieties  withstand 
dry  weather  and  other  climatic  troubles  far  better  than  others 
of  the  same  species. 

Manure  and  preparation  of  land. — All  varieties  need  high 
cultivation.  The  land  should  be  heavily  manured,  if  of  inferior 
quality,  and  thoroughly  plowed  and  brought  into  the  best  con- 
dition for  corn  or  other  gross  feeding  crop.  The  best  fertilizer 
is  well  rotted  barnyard  manure.  Raspberries,  especially  the 
black  cap  kinds,  will  produce  very  well  even  on  quite  poor  soil, 
but  rich  land  and  thorough  cultivation  is  necessary  for  the  best 
success  with  any  variety. 

Time  of  planting. — The  suckering  kinds  may  be  planted  in 
autumn  or  spring  with  safety.  When  the  work  is  done  in  the 
autumn  great  care  should  be  taken  to  firm  the  soil  around  the 
roots,  and  a  forkful  of  mulch  over  each  hill  is  a  great  protec- 
tion against  winter  injury.  Many  growers  prefer  to  Set  in  au- 
tumn, since  at  that  season  they  can  give  the  work  more  careful 
attention  than  in  the  spring.  Then,  again,  the  new  sprouts  from 
sets  (suckers)  start  very  early,  and  if  the  work  is  delayed  in 
the  spring  the  new  growth  is  often  broken  off  or  injured  in  the 
work  of  planting.  Black  caps  and  other  tip-rooting  kinds  should 
never  be  set  in  the  fall,  as  they  are  very  liable  to  be  winter- 


RASPBERRY.  269 

killed  if  moved  at  that  season.  They  should  always  be  set  in 
the  spring. 

Selection  of  plants. — Since  the  canes  are  biennial  there  is 
no  such  thing  as  two  or  three-year-old  plants,  as  with  trees 
when  we  refer  to  the  stems;  but  the  roots  may  be  of  any  age, 
as  they  are  perennial.  Plants  of  one  season's  growth  are  best 
to  begin  with.  Sucker  plants  are  largely  used  in  the  case  of 
varieties  increasing  in  that  way;  but  plants  from  root  cuttings 
are  generally  considered  fully  as  good,  or  even  better,  when 
well  grown.  The  old  stools  from  raspberry  plantations  may 
be  broken  up  and  the  parts  planted,  but  such  sets  have  few 
fibrous  roots  and  often  fail.  With  the  tip-rooting  kinds  plants 
obtained  by  breaking  up  the  old  stools  are  not  so  good  as  those 
from  the  suckering  kinds  obtained  in  the  same  way  and  should 
not  be  used,  as  they  are  very  apt  to  fail  even  with  the  best  of 
care.  It  is  important  to  use  only  vigorous  sets  taken  from 
perfectly  healthy  stock.  Old  plantations  of  raspberries  fre- 
quently become  diseased  and  plants  from  them  are  often  worth- 
less, consequently  much  care  should  be  exercised  in  buying 
plants.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to  avoid  using  sets  that  are 
affected  with  root  galls. 

Planting. — After  the  land  is  thoroughly  prepared  the  plants 
should  be  set  out  in  rows  seven  feet  apart  and  at  three-foot 
intervals  in  the  rows,  putting  two  plants  at  a  place.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  rows  may  be  lessened  to  five  feet  if  more 
space  is  not  available  and  the  weaker  growing  kinds  are  plant- 
ed, but  the  greater  distance  admits  of  cultivation  even  when 
the  bushes  are  loaded  with  fruit.  It  allows  sunlight  to  readily 
reach  the  plants  and  is  most  satisfactory  every  way,  and  for 
profit  they  should  never  be  set  any  nearer;  while  for  some  of 
the  strongest  growing  varieties  the  hills  should  not  be  nearer 
than  five  feet  in  the  row.  At  the  time  of  planting  the  canes 
should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  ground  and  no  fruit  allowed  to 
form  the  first  season. 

A  good  way  to  plant  is  to  mark  out  the  land  the  three-foot 
way  and  then  furrow  out  where  the  rows  are  to  come.  Set  the 
plants  in  the  furrows,  covering  them  temporarily  with  the  feet, 
and  afterwards  more  carefully  with  a  hoe,  firming  them  in  with 


270  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

the  feet  at  the  same  time.  The  rows  should  preferably  run 
north  and  south,  for  planted  in  this  way  the  fruit  is  shaded 
by  the  new  growth  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  during 
the  period  of  ripening.  Some  garden  crop  may  be  grown  between 
the  rows  the  first  year. 

Depth  to  plant. — Black  cap  raspberry  plants  should  be  set 
about  the  same  depth  in  the  soil  as  they  naturally  grew.  The 
roots  should  be  carefully  spread  and  the  soil  well  firmed  over 
them.  The  suckering  kinds  should  be  planted  a  little  deeper 
than  they  naturally  grew  and  be  well  firmed  in. 

Cultivation. — The  soil  should  be  kept  loose  with  a  horse  cul- 
tivator and  the  rows  free  from  weeds.  If  the  land  gets  hard 
the  one-horse  plow  may  be  used  but  the  land  should  be  kept 
flat  and  as  free  from  ridges  as  possible.  Frequent  shallow 
cultivation,  especially  in  a  dry  time,  is  important. 

Pruning  and  thinning. — Not  more  than  two  shoots  should 
be  permitted  to  grow  from  each  root  the  first  year.  The  second 
and  succeeding  years  the  suckering  kinds  will  produce  a  lot  of 
sprouts  all  around  the  hill;  four  or  five  of  those  nearest  the  hill 
should  be  allowed  to  grow  and  the  rest  treated  as  weeds.  If 
a  great  lot  of  these  suckers  are  allowed  to  remain,  but  little 
fruit  will  be  produced.  Black  cap  raspberries  will  this  year 
send  up  a  half  dozen  or  so  of  sprouts  at  the  base  of  the  old 
plants,  and  enough  of  these  should  be  removed  to  allow  the  re- 
mainder to  properly  develop.  All  these  sprouts  should  be 
pinched  once  when  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  hign,  if  they 
are  to  be  grown  without  a  trellis.  As  soon  as  the  fruit  has  been 
gathered  the  old  canes  which  have  borne  fruit  the  current  year 
should  be  cut  out  and  destroyed.  In  the  spring  the  suckering 
kinds  need  no  pruning,  but  the  lateral  canes  of  the  black  cap 
varieties  should  be  shortened  back  to  twelve  or  fifteen  inches, 
and  the  main  cane  shortened  perhaps  one-third  its  length.  This 
is  very  important,  as  the  branches  of  this  kind  are  so  slender 
that  they  will  bend  to  the  ground  and  break  under  the  weight 
of  fruit  unless  severely  pruned,  or  they  may  set  more  fruit  than 
they  can  mature  and  the  whole  be  lost.  When  pruned  in  this 
manner  the  fruit  will  be  much  larger  and  the  plant  will  yield 
fully  as  much  fruit  as  if  all  the  canes  were  left  their  whole  length. 


RASPBERRY.  271 

Mulching. — The  first  year  no  mulching  is  needed;  but  the 
second  season,  as  early  as  the  middle  of  June,  the  rows  should 
be  mulched  for  two  feet  on  each  side  with  hay,  straw  or  litter, 
or  with  what  is  better  still,  green  clover  cut  when  in  blossom 
and  put  on  two  inches  deep.  The  latter  is  especially  desirable 
because  it  lies  close,  and  as  it  rots  in  one  season  and  is  very 
rich  in  plant  food  it  makes  a  good  manure.  This  material 
keeps  the  land  moist,  the  berries  clean,  and  kills  out  weeds. 
After  putting  on  the  mulch  as  recommended  there  will  still  be 
a  space  two  and  a  half  feet  wide  between  the  rows  where  the 
cultivator  should  be  run  to  keep  the  soil  loose.  Too  much 
stress  can  hardly  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  mulching  this 
fruit.  It  frequently  makes  a  difference  between  a  good  profit 
and  a  big  loss. 

Support. — It  is  desirable  in  severe  climates  to  have  the 
canes  supported  in  some  manner.  In  milder  sections,  where 
winter  protection  is  not  necessary,  the  bushes  may  be  so  fre- 
quently pinched  as  to  make  them  form  little  trees  that  support 
themselves;  but  this  kind  of  treatment  is  not  desirable  where 
the  plants  have  to  be  covered  in  winter,  as  it  makes  them  so 
very  stocky  they  cannot  be  easily  laid  down.  A  very  good  sup- 
port for  raspberries  and  blackberries  is  made  by  running  a  No. 
12  galvanized  iron  wire  on  each  side  of  the  bushes,  attached 
to  a  good  solid  post  at  each  end  of  the  row  and  tied  together  at 
frequent  intervals.  This  wire  should  rest  on  nails  driven  in 
stakes  set  twenty-five  feet  apart.  Such  a  support  permits  the 
plants  to  move  gently  in  the  wind  but  not  sufficiently  to  break 
them  by  its  violence.  It  keeps  the  fruit  off  the  ground  and  is 
cheap  and  convenient. 

Winter  protection. — Winter  protection  of  some  sort  may 
be  necessary  for  raspberries  that  are  growing  in  severe  loca- 
tions. A  good  windbreak  may  be  sufficient  to  make  the  differ- 
ence between  success  and  failure  in  growing  this  crop  on  our 
western  prairies,  but  in  many  places  in  the  extreme  Northern 
states  and  in  many  parts  of  Colorado  it  is  necessary  to  bury 
the  canes  to  protect  them  from  winter  injury.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  when  tender  kinds  are  grown.  To  do  this,  the 
bushes  should  be  covered  late  in  autumn  before  the  ground 


272  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

freezes  hard  and  should  not  be  handled  when  there  is  any  frost 
In  the  canes.  The  best  covering  is  fresh  earth.  In  laying  them 
down  commence  at  the  north  end  of  the  row,  remove  the  soil 
from  the  north  side  of  the  hill,  about  four  inches  deep,  with 
a  garden  fork;  gather  the  branches  together  with  a  two-tined 
fork,  press  gently  to  the  north,  at  the  same  time  place  the  foot 
firmly  on  the  base  of  the  hill  and  press  hard,  bending  the  bush 


Fig.   122. — Uncovering  raspberry   bushes   in    the   spring. 

in  the  root  as  much  as  possible  and  as  little  as  may  be  in  the 
canes,  until  nearly  flat  on  the  ground  and  hold  it  there  until 
the  second  man  covers  with  soil  sufficient  to  hold  it  down.  The 
top  of  each  succeeding  hill  will  lie  at  the  base  of  its  predeces- 
sor, making  a  continuous  covering.  It  will  be  found  that  a  lit- 
tle mulch  put  on  the  canes  first  after  laying  them  down  will 
hold  the  soil  put  on,  and  much  less  soil  will  be  required  than 
If  no  mulch  is  used.  After  laying  them  all  down  turn  a  furrow 
against  each  side  of  the  rows,  covering  as  much  as  possible, 
and  draw  a  little  over  any  canes  that  may  be  left  exposed.  It 
is  only  necessary  to  use  enough  to  barely  cover  the  canes. 
There  are  some  of  the  strong  growing  varieties,  such  as  the 
Gregg,  that  on  rich  land  are  very  difficult  to  cover.  With  them 
it  will  do  very  well  to  bend  as  nearly  to  the  ground  as  is  safe 
and  cover  the  tops  only  with  enough  soil  to  hold  them  in  place. 


RASPBERRY  273 

While  it  would  be  better  to  cover  them  all  if  it  were  practicable, 
yet  treated  in  this  way  enough  snow  will  generally  lodge  in 
the  canes  to  cover  them,  and  if  this  is  supplemented  with  a 
light  covering  of  coarse  litter  or  straw  so  much  the  better.  If 
mice  are  numerous  they  must  be  poisoned  or  they  will  eat  the 
canes  under  the  mulch. 

A  machine  has  been  originated  in  Minnesota  that  covers 
raspberries  and  blackberries  quite  successfully  and  it  is  there 
used  on  a  large  scale.  It  requires  four  horses  to  operate  it. 
However,  it  often  breaks  many  canes  in  operating  and  some 
growers  prefer  to  take  their  chances  of  winter  injury  to  cover- 
ing with  it. 

Lifting  canes  in  the  spring. — The  canes  should  be  raised 
in  the  spring  soon  after  the  land  is  dry  and  well  settled.  To 
do  this  use  a  round-tined  fork  and  after  carefully  removing 
some  of  the  earth  raise  the  plants  slightly  to  a  slanting  posi- 
tion. It  is  found  that  left  in  this  position  the  fruiting  canes 
are  shaded  by  the  new  growth  and  are  not  so  crowded  as  when 
raised  up  straight. 

The  fruit. — The  fruit  is  found  in  red  or  yellow  colors  in 
the  red  raspberry  class  and  in  black,  yellow  and  purple  in  the 
cap  class.  The  varieties  vary  in  size,  fruitfulness  and  vigor 
as  well  as  in  color.  The  red  kinds  are  most  popular  but  the 
black  caps  are  much  used.  The  purple  and  yellow  varieties 
do  not  sell  well  in  most  markets  but  are  often  very  satisfactory 
in  the  home  garden  and  for  drying.  All  kinds  are  used  for 
drying  in  years  when  prices  are  low. 

Picking  and  marketing. — Avoid  picking  when  fruit  is  wet, 
if  possible,  and  pick  fruit  clean.  Do  not  leave  any  overripe 
fruit  on  the  plants.  Keep  picked  fruit  in  a  cool,  shady  place; 
transport  small  fruit  in  a  good  spring  wagon. 

Red  raspberries  are  generally  marketed  In  pint  boxes,  (24 
pints  in  a  case),  and  black  cap  raspberries  in  one  quart  boxes, 
but  some  growers  find  the  pint  box  best  for  all  kinds  of  rasp 
berries.  In  the  west  the  gift  package  only  is  used,  but  in  the 
Eastern  states  the  return  package  is  generally  preferred.  This 
subject  should  receive  the  most  careful  attention  of  growers. 

For  further  notes  on  picking,  marketing,  diseases  and  in- 


274  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

sects  affecting  raspberries  see  special  chapters  on  these  sub- 
jects. 

The  Blackberries. 

The  cultivated  blackberries  may  be  grouped  under  five  heads 
as  follows: 

(a)  The  high  bush  of  the  clearings  and  fence  rows  of  the 
Northern  states,  with  long  clusters — as  those  of  the  Ancient 
Briton. 

(b)  The  type  with  lower  growth  and  short  clusters  such 
as  those  of  the  Snyder  and  Badger.     Both  of  these  groups  are 
probably  forms  of  the  Rubus  villosus. 

(c)  The  trailing  dewberries  such  as  the  Lucretia  and  the 
Austin,  known  botanically  as  Rubus  canadensis. 

(d)  The  forms  that  are  intermediate  between  these  species 
are  probably  hybrids  between  the  two  species  above  mentioned. 
Among  these  are  varieties  such  as  the  Wilson  and  the  Rath- 
burn. 

(e)  The  cut-leaved  or  evergreen  blackberry  (Rubus  lacinia- 
tus)  is  probably  a  form    of    the    European    blackberry  (Rubus 
fruticosus).    This  kind  is  cultivated  on  the  Pacific  Coast  where 
it  remains  green  all  winter  and  is  very  prolific  and  highly  es- 
teemed. 

Propagation: 

(a)  The   high   bush  blackberry  is   propagated   by  suckers 
and  root  cuttings  in  the  same  way  as  the  suckering  raspberries. 

(b)  The  dewberry  is  propagated  by  layering  the  growing 
canes,  which  root  readily  about  midsummer.     Varieties  of  this 
group  are  not  generally  cultivated  with  success,  but  in  some 
locations  they  fruit  abundantly. 

Soils: 

(a)  The  best  soil  for  the  high  bush  blackberry  is  a  heavy 
clay  loam,  but  it  grows  on  a  wide  range  of  soils. 

(b)  The  dewberry  does  best  in  a  warm,  sandy  or  gravelly 
soil,  but  is  not  nearly  as  reliable  as  the  blackberry. 

Planting,   Cultivation   and   Pruning: 

(a)  Plant  and  cultivate   the  same  as  the  suckering  rasp- 
berry. 

(b)  It  is   considered   important  by  many  growers  to  pinch 


DWARF  JUNEBERRY.  275 

the  high  bush  blackberry  canes  at  least  once  when  two  feet 
high,  as  this  encourages  the  low  setting  of  the  fruit  buds. 

(c)  Spring  pruning  should  not  be  done  until  the  blackberry 
canes  are  in  flower  and  the  amount  and  location  of  bloom  is 
seen,   otherwise  too  many  fruiting  canes  may  be  removed  and 
thus  no  fruit  left.    As  a  rule,  about  one-half  of  the  bloom  should 
be  cut  off  in  the  pruning. 

(d)  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  trellis  for  blackberries  and 
dewberries. 

Dwarf  Juneberry. 

Dwarf  Juneberry  (Amelanchier  canadensis,  variety  oblong- 
ifoliaj. — This  is  also  called  shad  bush,  service  berry  and  suscu- 
tan  berry,  native  of  the  Northern  states  and  far  into  western 
Canada  where  in  thickets  it  reaches  the  height  of  16  feet  and 
produces  heavy  crops  of  large  fruit  that  is  much  prized  by  the 
settlers  and  Indians. 

There  are  several  so-called  varieties  of  it  found  in  the 
Northern  states,  one  of  which  makes  a  small  tree,  but  it  is  bet- 
ter known  in  its  dwarf  form,  which  is  so  very  distinct  from 
the  tree  form  as  to  seem  quite  worthy  of  being  made  a  separate 
species.  This  latter  form  is  quite  abundant  and  occasionally 
very  productive.  It  is  the  selected  kinds  of  it  that  are  cultivat- 
ed for  fruit.  It  generally  grows  from  four  to  six  feet  high;  is 
covered  with  a  profusion  of  white  flowers  early  in  the  spring, 
and  ripens  its  fruit  in  July  with  the  raspberries.  The  berry 
is  of  a  purplish  red  color,  often  nearly  one-half  inch  in  diameter. 
Figure  124  shows  its  size  and  form.  Like  the  blueberries,  the 
quality  of  the  fruit  is  sweet  though  rather  tame,  but  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  little  lemon  juice  it  makes  an  excellent  pie  or  sauce. 
It  is  readily  cultivated  and  yields  regular  and  abundant  crops. 
However,  when  grown  in  a  small  way  the  fruit  must  be  protect- 
ed from  the  birds  or  they  will  take  it  as  fast  as  it  ripens.  Mos- 
quito netting,  or  the  coarse  wire  netting — such  as  is  used 
for  chicken  yards,  is  useful  for  this  purpose.  When  grown  on 
a  large  scale,  the  depredation  of  the  birds  is  not  so  apparent. 
The  plants  are  extremely  hardy,  seldom  if  ever  being  injured 
by  our  most  severe  winters,  and  are  healthy  and  free  from 
insect  pests.  On  account  of  its  many  good  qualities,  it  should 


276 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


find  a  place  in  the  home  garden,  and  it  could  often  be  cultivated 
for  the  near  market  at  a  profit. 

Propagation   and   cultivation. — The    plants    are    readily    in- 
creased   from    suckers,  which    are    produced    rather    sparingly 

around  the  old  plants 
unless  they  are  cut 
back.  These  should  be 
set  out  at  about  four- 
foot  intervals  in  rows 
five  feet  apart,  on  rich 
upland.  They  com- 
mence to  bear  in  two 
years,  but  will  not  pro- 
duce a  full  crop  until 
the  fourth  year.  They 
need  clean  cultivation, 
and  in  dry  situations 
should  be  mulched  to 
protect  from  drouth. 
They  require  but  little 
pruning,  though  the 
suckers  should  be  thin- 
ned out  if  they  become 
Fig.  123.— Dwarf  Juneberry.  Flow-  abundant. 

Varieties.— There 

are  but  few  varieties  of  this  fruit  offered  by  nursery- 
men, and  these  are  the  result  of  selections  made 
from  plants  growing  in  the  wild  state.  They  are,  however, 
much  superior  in  size  of  fruit  and  in  productiveness  to  the 
plants  commonly  found  in  the  fields,  although  these  latter  are 
greatly  improved  by  cultivation.  It  is  very  probable  that  by 
growing  seedlings,  new  varieties  much  superior  to  those  now 
known  will  be  originated.  The  kinds  now  grown  require  several 
weeks  in  which  to  ripen  their  fruit.  The  only  variety  of  importance 
is  known  as  Success  and  probably  originated  in  Kansas.  It  is  pro- 
ductive of  large  purple  fruit  of  good  quality;  rather  spreading 
in  habit,  with  pendulous  fruit  clusters;  earlier  than  the  others 


SAND  CHERRY. 


277 


mentioned,  ripening  with  the  early  currants.    Probably  as  good 
as  any  if  not  the  best  for  general  cultivation. 

Aside   from   its    fruit-producing   qualities   the   Dwarf  June- 
berries  make  nice  lawn  shrubs,  being  clean  in  habit  and  very 
pretty  when  covered  with  their  profusion  of  graceful  white  flow- 
ers, which  appear  early  in  the  spring. 
Sand   Cherry. 

Sand  Cherry  (Prunus  pumila). — This  fruit  plant  is  found 
In  northern  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas,  and 
elsewhere.  It  frequently  fruits  prodigiously  on  dry,  gravelly 


Fig.    124.— Dwarf   Juneberry.     Foliage   and   fruit, 
embankments  where  scarcely  any  other  plant  can  find  exist- 
ence.   In  fact,  it  seems  to  be  better  adapted  to  a  very  dry  rather 
than  to  a  moist  location.    Plants  on  rich,  moist  land  will  often 
flower  profusely  but  fail  to  set  much  fruit.    It  seems  quite  prob- 


278 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


able  that  where  the  rainfall  is  light  this  plant  will  do  well  on 
rich  soil,  but  where  the  precipitation  is  abundant  it  is  best 
adapted  to  sandy  or  gravelly  land.  Thus  it  fruits  abundantly 
on  the  sandy  land  of  northern  Minnesota  and  on  the  dry,  rich 
land  of  the  Dakotas. 

Description. — Some  plants  will  reach  a  height  of  four  feet 
and  spread  five  feet  on  the  ground,  while  others  attain  only 
half  that  size.  The  fruit  resembles  the  cultivated  cherry,  but 
varies  considerably  in  form,  size  and  color  on  different  plants. 
It  is  generally  of  a  reddish — almost  black — color  when  ripe. 


Fig.  125.— Sand  Cherry.    Foliage  and  fruit. 

The  ripe  fruit  varies  from  the  size  of  a  large  green  pea  to  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter.  In  some,  the  pit  is  small, 
while  in  others  it  is  very  large.  The  quality  is  generally  too  as- 
tringent to  be  relished  uncooked,  but  this  quality  varies  greatly 
in  the  different  plants.  When  cooked,  its  astringency  disap- 
pears and  it  makes  a  most  excellent  sauce.  Where  it  grows 
abundantly  it  is  used  for  sauce  and  for  a  sort  of  wine,  which 


BUFFALO  BERRY. 


279 


is  said  to  be  very  palatable.  It  is  not  only  a  productive  fruit 
plant,  but  a  clean,  strong  growing  shrub,  and  well  adapted  to 
severe  locations  on  the  lawn.  The  fruit  ripens  in  the  latter  part 
of  July  and  first  of  August.  It  seems  to  be  much  more  like  a 
plum  than  a  cherry,  and  perhaps  the  name  sand  plum  would  be 
more  appropriate  for  it. 

Propagation.— It  grows  freely  from  seed,  which  should  be 
sown  as  soon  as  ripe  and  not  be  allowed  to  get  dry.  Seedlings 
vary  much,  and  selected  plants  should  be  grown  in  other  ways. 
They  fruit  in  about  three  years  from  seed.  In  many  sections 
the  wild  plants  may  be  dug  and  transplanted  to  the  garden. 
Plants  may  be  increased  by  layers,  suckers  and  root  cuttings, 
and  by  budding  and  grafting  on  the  sand  cherry  or  the  native 
plum.  The  easiest  way  to  increase  them  is  by  cutting  the  roots 
around  the  plants  about  eight  inches  away  from  the  main  stem 
sometime  when  the  plant  is  dormant,  and  all  the  cut  surfaces 
will  sprout  and  form  new  plants.  If  the  roots  are  cut  into 
pieces  about  six  inches  long  and  these  treated  like  willow  cut- 
tings, they  will  grow  nearly  as  readily.  When  budded  on  the 
plum,  peculiar-looking,  interesting  trees  are  formed,  which  are 
quite  fruitful.  The  plum  may  also  be  worked  on  the  sand  cher- 
ry and  it  forms  a  good  union,  but  the  roots  are  so  flexible  that 
the  trees  are  liable  to  blow  over  unless  the  union  is  set  very 

deep.  The  common  cherry 
does  not  take  freely  on  it. 
At  present  only  seedlings 
are  offered  by  nurserymen, 
there  having  been  no  nam- 
ed kinds  introducd. 

A  form  of  this,  called 
the  Dwarf  Rocky  Mountain 
cherry,  has  recently  been 
sent  out  from  Colorado, 
but  has  not  been  suffi- 
ciently tried  to  warrant 
conclusions  as  to  its  value 
here.  It  is,  however,  ex- 

Fig.   126.-Buffalo  berry.     Flowers.        ^^    d°Ub«Ul    whether 
a.— Pistillate,     b.— Staminate.  it     is     any     better     than 


280  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


Fig.    127. — Buffalo    Berry.      Foliage    and    fruit, 
a. — Fruit,   natural   size. 

the  best  of  our  native  kinds.  The  Utah  hybrid  cherry  some- 
what resembles  this  but  has  a  more  erect  habit.  A  quite  limit- 
ed experience  seems  to  show  it  is  much  inferior  to  our  best  na- 
tive kinds.  Bullberry,  or  Buffalo  Berry. 

Bullberry,  or  Buffalo-berry  (Shepherdia  argentea). — This 
plant  is  found  abundantly  along  the  river  banks  and  coulees  of. 
the  Dakotas,  Montana,  Wyoming  and  Idaho,  though  but  sparing- 
ly, if  at  all,  in  Minnesota  or  the  more  eastern  and  central  states, 
yet  it  grows  freely  and  fruits  abundantly  in  all  the  northern 
states. 

Description. — A  small  tree  or  shrub  with  light  colored  foli- 
age, young  growth  and  opposite  leaves.  The  flowers  and  fruit 
are  clustered  near  the  base  of  the  small  branchlets  on  spurs  on 
very  short  stems.  The  plants  are  dioecious,  i.  e.,  one  has  pistil- 
late and  the  other  staminate  flowers,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to 
have  both  kinds  near  together  in  order  to  get  fruit.  The  flow- 
ers appear  very  early  in  the  spring  before  the  leaves  and  are 
small  and  inconspicuous.  The  fruit  is  produced  in  great  abun- 
dance— often  so  thickly  as  to  conceal  the  branches  on  which 
it  grows — and  when  ripe  gives  a  scarlet  appearance  to  the 


MULBERRY.  281 

whole  plant.  Occasional  plants  have  yellow  fruit.  It  is  about 
the  size  of  red  currants,  and  contains  one  oval,  quite  large  seed. 
The  quality  is  much  like  that  of  rather  sour  red  currants.  It 
makes  a  fine  jelly,  but  on  account  of  the  large  seeds  it  is  not 
so  desirable  for  a  sauce  as  red  currants,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  will  ever  be  popular  for  fruit  where  the  red  currant 
is  productive  and  reliable,  but  it  is  of  use  as  an  ornamental 
shrub,  and  it  will  probably  be  used  to  quite  an  extent  for  this 
purpose. 

Propagation. — This  plant  suckers  readily  if  the  roots  are 
cut,  but  it  is  generally  grown  from  seed,  which  germinate  readi- 
ly if  not  allowed  to  dry  and  are  winter  covered  with  earth  and 
sown  in  the  spring.  An  easy  way  to  winter  it  is  to  cover  the 
seed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  with  an  inverted  sod. 
Mulberries. 

The  mulberry  is  seldom  grown  in  this  country  and  then 
is  generally  limited  to  two  or  three  trees.  This  is  probably  on 
account  of  its  lack  of  keeping  qualities  and  its  peculiar  flavor 
which  is  not  generally  highly  esteemed.  It  is  classfied  by  Prof. 
L.  H.  Bailey  as  follows: 

1.  The  White  Mulberry  group  (Morus  alba). 

a,  Russian  Mulberry  (Morus  var.  tartarica). 

b.  Nervosa  Mulberry  (Morus  var.  venosa). 

2.  The  Multicaulis  group  (Morus  latifoliaj. 

3.  The  Japanese  group  (Morus  japonica). 

4.  The  Black  Mulberry  group  (Morus  nigra). 

5.  The  Red  or  Native  Mulberry  group  (Morus  rubra). 
a.  Lampasas  Mulberry  (Morus  var.  tomentosa). 

The  best  variety  of  the  mulberry  for  growing  in  the  north 
Central  states  is  known  as  the  New  American  but  it  is  not 
hardy  in  the  more  northern  states  where  the  Russian  Mul- 
berry takes  its  place.  This  latter  is  known  as  Morus  alba  var. 
tartarica  and  is  described  in  Amateur  Fruit  Growing  as  follows: 

"The  Russian  mulberry  was  introduced  from  Russia  and 
is  very  hardy  over  much  of  the  Northwest.  The  Mennonites  of 
Nebraska  were  among  the  first  to  introduce  it  into  this  coun- 
try and  they  grew  it  from  imported  seed.  It  makes  a  small  tree 
but  is  much  better  adapted  to  -being  grown  in  the  form  of  a 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


hedge  or  windbreak.  In  this  form,  it  will  often  attain  the  height 
of  twenty  feet  and  becomes  very  close  and  pretty  if  given  an  oc- 
casional pruning.  It  is  of  a  rapid  growth  and  very  hardy  in 
southern  Minnesota  and  southern  Dakota,  Nebraska  and  Kan- 
sas, and  even  north  to  the  latitude  of  St.  Paul,  it  stands  fairly 
well.  Occasionally  in  very  severe  winters,  it  will  lose  a  part 
of  its  new  growth  but  it  quickly  outgrows  this  injury  and  is  less 
liable  to  winter  killing  when  old  than  when  young." 

Its  fruit. — With  few  exceptions,  all  trees  of  this  species 
now  growing  in  this  country  have  been  propagated  from  seed, 
and  as  with  most  other  fruits,  not  one  seedling  in  five  hundred 
produces  fruit  of  much  value.  Most  seedlings  have  very  small 
fruit,  while  others  are  staminate  and  have  no  fruit  at  all.  Quite 
frequently  some  trees  will  bear  fruit  as  large  as  a  medium-sized 
blackberry,  and  occasionally  considerably  larger.  The  quality 
of  the  fruit  varies  nearly  as  much  as  the  size  of  the  berries; 
some  being  insipid  and  even  unpleasant,  while  others  are  sweet 
and  agreeable,  but  like  all  mulberries,  they  lack  high  quality. 

They  are  quite  soft  when 
ripe  and  quickly  fall  to 
the  ground,  which  should 
be  kept  smooth  so  that 
they  may  be  readily  gath- 
ered. It  is  at  its  best  Just 
as  it  falls  from  the  tree 
and  generally  commences 
to  ripen  just  before  the 
first  currants,  and  con- 
tinues ripening  for  a 
week  or  more.  It  re- 
sembles the  blackberry 
In  appearance,  but  the 
fruit  of  some  seedlings 
Is  nearly  white  in  color, 
though  the  latter  are  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  as  good  eat- 

.    128,-Russian   Mulberry.   Foli-        ing  SS  the  blackberry«  The 
age  and  fruit.  age  at  which  plants  com- 


CRANBERRY.  283 

mence  to  produce  fruit  varies  greatly,  but  when  five  or  six  years 
old,  they  may  be  expected  to  commence  fruiting,  and  as  they  grow 
older  their  fruitfulness  increases.  As  a  market  fruit  it  probably 
has  no  value,  but  a  few  trees  should  be  in  every  garden.  Children 
generally  relish  the  fruit,  and  the  birds  let  other  fruit  alone 
to  feed  on  it.  It  is  also  used  for  sauce  and  pies,  but  for  this 
purpose  something  should  be  added  to  it  for  flavor, 

Propagation. — The  seed  grows  readily  if  sown  as  soon  as 
ripe.  For  this  purpose,  the  berries  may  be  crushed  in  dry  sand 
and  sown  with  it  in  a  rather  moist,  somewhat  shady  situation. 
In  two  years  the  seedlings  may  be  transplanted  to  the  perma- 
ment  location,  but  seedlings  vary  in  their  productiveness,  and 
while  for  a  windbreak  they  may  answer  as  well  as  any,  yet 
when  plants  are  wanted  for  fruit,  they  should  be  grown  from 
cuttings  or  layers  of  the  best  kinds,  or  by  grafting  on  seedling 
stocks.  For  this  purpose,  the  cuttings  should  be  made  in  the 
fall,  about  twelve  inches  long  of  the  old  wood,  and  be  deeply 
planted  in  rich  land,  with  not  more  than  two  buds  above  the 
surface.  The  branches  root  easily  when  layered,  and  if  the 
earth  is  drawn  up  around  the  sprouts  until  they  root  they  make 
good  plants. 

Varieties. — There  are  no  named  kinds  offered  by  nursery- 
men, and  it  is  necessary  to  depend  on  chance  seedlings.  How- 
ever, if  any  large  windbreak  is  looked  over  in  the  fruiting  sea- 
son one  or  more  trees  can  generally  be  picked  out  that  bear 
fruit  of  exceptional  value,  and  such  may  readily  be  increased. 
The  flowers  are  of  two  kinds;  sometimes  both  staminate  (male) 
and  pistillate  (female)  are  on  one  tree,  and  sometimes  a  single 
tree  is  limited  to  one  sex.  On  this  account  some  care  is  neces- 
sary in  selecting  a  variety  to  get  one  with  both  kinds  of  flowers, 
or  else  plant  the  pistillate  kind  near  a  tree  having  staminate 
flowers. 

The   Cranberry. 

Cranberry  (Vaccinium  macrocarponj. — This  is  the  low  trail- 
ing cranberry  of  the  swamps  of  many  of  the  northern  states. 
The  form  and  habit  are  well  illustrated  in  Fig.  129.  The  so-called 
high  bush  cranberry  (Viburnum  opulus)  is  a  tall  shrub  and 
much  more  widely  distributed  than  the  trailing  cranberry.  The 


284  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

latter  has  one  flat  seed  in  each  fruit,  while  the  former  is  a 
many  seeded  berry.  This  plant  is  not  adapted  to  general  cul- 
tivation, and  seldom,  if  ever,  does  well  on  the  prairies  of  the 
West.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that  it  cannot  be 
successfully  cultivated  except  on  the  granitic  soils  of  the  north- 
ern states,  and  that  it  will  be  a  failure  on  the  limestone  drift 
soils,  such  as  are  common  to  the  prairies  of  Minnesota,  Iowa 
and  the  Dakotas.  In  Wisconsin  and  eastern  and  northern  Min- 
nesota it  is  often  very  productive,  either  wild  or  cultivated,  and 
is  an  article  of  much  importance  in  the  markets  of  those  sec- 
tions each  year.  Where  this  fruit  can  be  cultivated  it  is  often 
the  most  paying  crop  that  can  be  grown. 

Best    location    for    cranberry    beds. — In    a    wild    state    this 
plant  is  found  at  its  best  on  moist  land  where  the  water  level  is 

within  eighteen  inches  of  the 
surface.  It  seems  to  be  rather 
indifferent  about  the  soil,  some- 
times growing  on  sand  and  then 
on  peat  mud  or  moss.  As  a 
rule  the  best  locations  are  low 
meadow  lands  sloping  down  to 
ponds,  or  watered  by  brooks  or 
creeks,  somewhat  sheltered 
but  shaded.  On  uplands,  it  has 
been  successfully  cultivated, 
but  in  such  situations  in  is  gen- 
erally unprofitable  and  fre- 
quently an  entire  failure.  It 
may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule 
that  the  soil  in  which  this  plant 
is  to  thrive  must  be  liberally 
supplied  with  water,  and  yet 
the  land  must  be  so  drained 
that  the  water  can  be  drawn 
off  to  at  least  ten  inches  be- 

Fig    129. — Common'  cranberry-  Foil-    low     the     surface.        The     best 
ag«    and    fruit;    about    one-half    cranberry     bogs      are      so      „. 


CRANBERRY.  285 

ranged  that  both  the  flowage  and  drainage  can  be  controlled 
at  will.  Land  that  has  been  covered  with  stagnant  water  for 
a  long  time,  as  the  bottom  of  ponds,  is  not  fit  for  the  growth 
of  this  plant  until  it  has  been  cultivated  and  exposed  to  the  air 
for  a  year  or  more. 

Soil  adapted  to  it — Wherever  the  cranberry  is  growing  nat- 
urally one  may  be  sure  that  the  land  near  by  is  adapted  to  its 
culture.  If  no  wild  plants  are  growing  near  the  supposed  prop- 
er location,  it  is  a  safe  and  good  plan  to  plant  a  few  rods  of 
the  most  favorable  portion  of  it  as  an  experiment  before  spend- 
ing much  time  or  money  on  improvements  which  may  prove 
to  be  futile.  With  a  bog  adapted  to  the  growing  of  this  plant, 
with  control  of  the  drainage  and  flowage,  a  good  crop  of  fruit 
is  assured  for  almost  every  year,  if  the  work  of  preparation  is 
properly  done.  Yet  there  are  many  wild  and  cultivated  bogs 
that  have  yielded  very  profitable  crops  for  many  years  where 
the  flowage  has  not  been  controlled,  and  hence  if  that  factor 
cannot  be  directed  at  will,  it  is  not  necessarily  a  sufficient  rea- 
son why  an  attempt  should  not  be  made  to  plant  suitable  land, 
providing  the  work  can  be  done  at  small  cost.  The  returns 
from  natural  cranberry  bogs  may  often  be  greatly  increased 
by  a  little  judicious  expenditure. 

Preparation  of  the  land. — The  first  steps  should  be  directed 
to  destroying  the  vegetation  growing  on  the  land.  The  proper 
method  of  doing  this  will  vary  according  to  the  location  and 
condition  of  the  land.  It  can  sometimes  be  done  by  flooding 
the  land  for  one  year  and  then  clearing  it,  or  by  summer  fallow- 
ing, and  it  may  occasionally  pay  to  cut  off  the  whole  surface 
of  the  bog,  with  spade  or  turf  ax,  and  remove  it  by  hand.  But 
in  some  way  the  surface  of  the  land  must  be  cleaned  of  its 
growth  and  made  level,  and  fine  and  perfect  as  a  garden.  If 
it  is  to  be  flowed,  it  should  be  made  perfectly  level,  as  it  will 
then  take  much  less  water  for  flowage  than  if  uneven.  This 
matter  is  especially  important  where  the  water  supply  is  limited. 
Supplying  sand. — It  is  of  great  advantage  to  have  the  sur- 
face of  the  land  covered  with  about  four  inches  of  clean  sand, 
and  this  should  be  done  even  if  at  considerable  expense.  The 
sand  used  should  preferably  be  rather  coarse,  but  it  must  be 
free  from  clay  or  loam,  as  anything  that  encourages  the  baking 


28i>  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

of  the  surface  of  the  bed  is  injurious.  This  sand  offers  a  good 
place  for  the  plants  to  root,  is  easily  cultivated,  and  experience 
shows  that  it  is  conducive  to  fruitfulness.  Yet  there  are  many 
very  fruitful  peat  beds  that  have  never  been  sanded.  If  a  peat 
bed  is  to  be  used  without  sand,  the  surface  should  be  exposed 
to  frost  one  year  before  planting  or  it  will  be  likely  to  bake 
hard,  but  after  one  season's  frost  it  becomes  loose  and  fine. 

Drainage  and  flowage. — The  method  of  securing  these  con- 
ditions will  depend  much  on  the  situation  of  the  land.  The 
drainage  is  generally  best  accomplished  by  digging  an  open 


Fig.  130. — Cranberry  bog  newly  planted,  showing  ditch  and  dike;  also 
portion  of  bed  not  yet  covered  with  sand. 

ditch  four  or  more  feet  wide  through  the  center  of  the  land. 
A  smaller  ditch  should  completely  enclose  the  land,  which 
should  be  divided  into  beds  by  lateral  ditches  about  five  rods 
apart.  Where  springs  are  met  with  they  must  be  connected 
with  a  ditch. 

Importance  of  water. — The  flowage  may  sometimes  be  con- 
trolled from  a  pond  above  the  bog,  or  by  a  brook  or  creek  run- 
ning through  it.  Every  reasonable  effort  should  be  made  to 
secure  and  control  water  for  flowage  for  the  following  reasons: 
(1)  Without  a  good  water  supply  bogs  often  get  very  dry  in 
periods  of  protracted  drouth,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  plants, 
and  occasionally  peat  or  moss  bogs  get  on  fire  and  burn  up, 
destroying  all  the  work  done.  A  bog  once  on  fire  can  seldom 
be  saved  except  by  flooding.  (2)  The  water  kept  over  the 


CRANBERRY. 


287 


plants  in  the  spring  will  serve  to  retard  the  blossoming  until 
danger  of  frost  is  past,  and  will  protect  the  fruit  from  early 
frosts  in  autumn.  (3)  Beds  that  are  kept  under  water  until 
late  in  the  spring  are  seldom  seriously  injured  by  insects.  (4) 
Beds  do  best  when  protected  by  a  water  covering  in  winter.  If 
not  thus  protected  they  may  be  seriously  injured. 

When  there  is  considerable  fall  in  the  bed  it  is  customary 
to  finish  it  at  several  grades  and  to  put  in 
as  many  dams,  but  where  there  is  not  more 
than  two  or  three  feet  of  fall  one  dam  is 
quite  sufficient.  Dams  should  be  made 
strong  and  have  sluiceways  large  enough  to 
let  off  all  the  water  liable  to  drain  through 
them. 

About  flowing. — All  that  is  required  in 
flowing  a  bog  is  sufficient  water  to  cover 
the  vines.  They  should  be  covered  about 
the  first  of  November,  and  as  deep  as  they 
are  to  remain  covered  during  the  winter. 
The  freezing  of  the  vines  in  the  ice  does 
not  hurt  them,  but  raising  the  level  of  the 
water  in  the  bed  after  they  are  frozen,  and 
thus  raising  the  ice  and  tearing  the  vines 
out  of  the  ground,  is  where  the  great  dan- 
ger lies.  To  avoid  this,  the  sluice- 
ways should  be  kept  sufficiently  open 
to  allow  any  surplus  water  to  pass 
off. 

The  first  two  seasons  the  water  should  be  kept  on  the  vines 
until  the  last  of  April,  but  after  that,  or  when  the  bog  is  in  con- 
dition to  bear,  the  water  should  be  kept  on  until  the  last  of 
May  or  first  of  June. .  The  object  of  keeping  it  on  so  late  is 
to  prevent  injury  from  late  frosts,  and  to  destroy  the  fruit 
worm  and  fire  worm  which  are  the  worst  foes  of  the  cranberry. 
If  the  fruit  is  covered  with  water  in  warm  weather,  it  is  very 
liable  to  be  ruined,  but  the  vines  are  uninjured  by  such  flowage. 
Throughout  the  growing  season  the  water  should  be  about 
twelve  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  bed. 


Fig.  131.— Cranber- 
ry plants,  one, 
two  and  three 
years  after  set- 
ting. 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


Plants  and  planting. — In  selecting  plants  great  care  should 
be  used  to  get  them  from  fruitful  beds,  as  some  are  almost 
barren.  There  are  very  many  named  kinds,  and  they  vary  great- 
ly in  size,  growth,  time  of  ripening  and  productiveness,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  any  of  the  named  kinds,  the  most  of  which  ori- 
ginated in  the  East,  are  adapted  to  the  climate  of  this  section, 
and  it  is  probably  better  for  the  present  to  depend  on  getting 
plants  from  the  most  fruitful  wild  cultivated  beds  near  at  hand. 
The  kind  most  esteemed  in  the  East  is  called  the  Early  Black. 
It  is  very  early  and  productive,  though  not  a  vigorous  grower. 
Propagation. — The  cranberry  plant  grows  very  readily  from 
cuttings,  and  on  this  account  some  growers  cut  the  plants  in 
a  hay  cutter,  sow  the  pieces  broadcast  and  harrow  them  in  with 
a  disc  harrow,  but  that  method  of  planting  is  not  advisable. 
The  most  common  way  is  to  make  cuttings  of  the  younger  parts 
of  the  vines  about  ten  inches  long,  and  plant  one  in  a  place, 

but  sometimes  longer  cut- 
tings are  used  which  are 
doubled  when  planted. 
The  cuttings  may  be  car- 
ried over  a  whole  season 
with  good  success  if  they 
are  kept  covered  with 
running  water,  but  in  stag- 
nant water  they  would  be 
likely  to  spoil.  On  this 
account  they  may  be  set 
at  almost  any  season  of  the 
year  if  the  flowage  is  con- 
trolled, but  the  spring  of 
the  year  is  generally  pre- 
ferred, and  if  there  is  no 
chance  to  flow  at  will  it 
is  by  far  the  surest  time 
to  plant. 

Before  planting  is 
commenced,  the  bed  should  be  marked  off  each  way 
at  about  eighteen  inch  intervals.  In  planting,  a 


Fig.  132. — The  two  kinds  of  cran- 
berry mkes  In  common  use. 


PERSIMMON.  289 

wooden  dibber  is  used  having  an  incurved  or  reversed  wedge- 
shaped  point,  with  which  the  cuttings  are  crowded  through  the 
sand  down  into  contact  with  the  bog  beneath  at  one  operation, 
without  first  making  a  hole  as  is  customary  in  the  ordinary 
use  of  a  dibber.  After  the  cuttings  are  planted  the  water  should 
be  raised  in  the  trenches  sufficiently  to  keep  the  surface  land  a 
little  moist  to  encourage  the  rooting  of  the  cuttings.  The  after- 
cultivation  consists  in  keeping  the  soil  moist  and  giving  clean 
cultivation.  Some  of  the  best  cranberry  growers  apply  each 
year  a  coat  of  about  one  inch  of  sand  to  their  bogs  and  find  that 
it  is  profitable  to  do  so  as  it  acts  much  like  a  fertilizer. 

Picking. — If  the  berries  are  allowed  to  fully  ripen  on  the 
vine  they  will  keep  much  better  than  if  picked  earlier,  but 
where  there  is  danger  of  frost  before  they  are  ripe  the  berries 
should  be  picked  as  soon  as  they  commence  to  color,  though 
when  picked  so  early,  they  will  seldom  keep  well  after  the  mid- 
dle of  January.  If  severely  frozen  the  berries  are  ruined,  but 
they  are  not  injured  by  a  "white  frost."  Picking  is  generally 
done  by  hand,  though  some  few  growers  "rake"  them  off  the 
vines.  The  berries  keep  well  in  a  dry,  cool  place,  and  are  more 
easily  kept  if  covered  with  water. 

The  Persimmon. 

There  are  two  distinct  forms  of  the  persimmon  in  cultiva- 
tion, which  are  commonly  known  as  the  Native  or  American 
persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana)  and  the  Asiatic  species 
(Diospyros  Tcaki)  which  has  been  chiefly  developed  under  cul- 
tivation in  Japan,  and  is  known  commonly  in  America  as  the 
Japanese  persimmon.  The  wood  of  most  of  the  species  of  this 
tree  is  hard,  close-grained  and  takes  a  light  polish.  Some  of 
the  tropical  species  give  us  the  ebony  of  commerce. 

The  native  persimmon  is  found  growing  wild  in  the  South- 
ern states  and  as  far  north  as  latitude  38,  that  is,  to  central 
Indiana.  The  tree,  when  grown  in  the  forest,  is  sometimes  75 
feet  high  but  usually  20  to  30  feet  high.  It  will  ripen  its  fruit 
as  far  north  as  northern  Indiana.  Its  use  is  largely  local,  al- 
though it  is  occasionally  offered  in  the  larger  markets.  The 
wild  fruit  varies  in  size  from  one-half  to  two  inches  in  diameter, 
depending  largely  upon  the  number  of  seeds  it  contains.  Seed- 


290  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

less  varieties  an  inch  in  diameter  are  known.  The  fruit  is  very 
astringent  until  ripe  and  some  seedlings  never  lose  this  quali- 
ty. There  is  a  general  impression  that  frost  is  necessary  to 
sweeten  this  fruit  but  this  is  a  mistake,  as  some  varieties  are 
sweet  without  being  touched  with  frost  and  others  are  made 
more  edible.  It  ripens  from  August  1st  to  December  in  the  Cen- 
tral states.  It  is  easily  propagated  by  seeds  which  should  be 
stratified  over  winter  and  planted  in  spring  the  same  as  the 
peach  pits.  The  seedlings  do  not  come  true  from  seed.  This 
is  especially  so  with  the  selected  kinds,  which  are  propagated 
by  budding  and  grafting  when  two  or  three  years  old  at  the 
collar  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  bark  will  peel  easily.  This 
tree  is  very  difficult  to  transplant  and  if  its  tap  root  is  cut  off, 
it  is  liable  to  die.  The  top  should  be  severely  pruned  when 
the  tree  is  transplanted.  The  persimmon  will  grow  in  any  good 
agricultural  soil,  but  thrives  best  on  a  good,  rich,  warm  soil. 
As  yet,  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  originating  good  named 
varieties  of  this  native  fruit  but  some  of  those  produced  are 
of  fine  quality  and  destined  to  be  widely  grown  in  favorable 
localities. 

The  Japanese  persimmons  were  introduced  into  America  in 
the  early  history  and  have  proven  well  adapted  to  the  more 
southern  states  and  parts  of  California,  and  are  regularly  to 
be  seen  in  our  markets  and  are  growing  in  popularity.  There 
is  quite  a  difference  in  the  hardiness  of  different  varieties. 
Few  of  them  can  stand  a  temperature  of  zero  and,  as  a  rule,  do 
best  south  of  the  32nd  degree  of  latitude.  It  is  considered  by 
the  Japanese  as  their  best  pomological  product. 

The  trees  of  the  different  varieties  attain  a  height  of  ten 
feet  while  others  are  compact  and  dwarf  in  habit  and  do  not 
grow  more  than  5  or  6  feet  high.  This  latter  class  bears  young, 
often  a  good  crop  at  three  years  old.  The  fruit  is  very  pretty, 
usually  bright  orange  red  or  vermilion,  and  round  or  oblong  in 
shape.  They  color  up  when  far  from  being  ripe  and  should 
not  be  gathered  until  just  before  the  frost  or  when  they  be- 
come soft,  as  in  the  case  of  the  early  kinds.  The  round  varie- 
ties ripen  first  and  the  oblong  ripen  later.  The  latter,  if  picked 
before  being  ripe,  should  be  allowed  to  ripen  in  the  house  to 
remove  the  slight  astringency. 


PERSIMMON.  291 

Seedlings  of  the  Japanese  persimmon  have  a  tendency  to 
produce  male  flowers  only  during  the  first  three  years  of  flow- 
ering. After  that,  a  few  female  flowers  appear  but  they  are 
few  in  comparison  with  the  male  flowers.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  seedlings  produce  fruit  that  is  small  and  too  astringent 
to  eat.  There  are  a  number  of  varieties  offered  by  the  nursery 
trade. 


QUESTIONS— CHAPTER   XIV. 

SMALL  FRUITS. 

Strawberry. 

1.  From  what  species   of  strawberry  have  our  cultivated  vari- 
eties originated? 

2.  How  may  the  strawberry  be  propagated? 

3.  What  location  and  soil  is  best  for  strawberries? 

4.  How  should  the   land  be  prepared? 

5.  When  should  strawberries  be  set  out? 

6.  Explain  the  Hill  system — the  matted  Row  system. 

7.  How  should  the  plants  be  trimmed  and  set? 

8.  What  protection   should   be   given   strawberries   In   winter? 

9.  How  may  old  strawberry  beds  be  renewed? 

10.  Into  what  two  classes  may  strawberries  be  divided? 

11.  What  are  nubbins? 

12.  How  should  strawberries  be  picked  and  marketed? 

13.  How  may  they  be  protected  from  frosts? 

Currant. 

1.  What  is   the  origin  of  the  red  currant?    Of   the   black   cdr- 
rant?     Of  Crandall's   currant?     Of  the  Missouri  currant? 

2.  What  soil  is  best  adapted  for  currant  growing? 

3.  How  should  they  be  planted? 

4.  How  often  and  in  what  way  should  they  be  cultivated? 
6.     When  do  currants  need  mulching? 

6.  What  is  a  good  mulch  for  currants? 

7.  How  often  should  currants  be  pruned? 

8.  What  pruning  is  necessary? 

9.  What  are  "tree  currants?" 

10.  How  are  they  formed? 

11.  Of  what  value  are  they? 

12.  In  what  ways  may  currants  be  protected  from  winter  Injury? 

13.  How  is  the  fruit  marketed? 

14.  For  what  is  it  used? 

15.  What  varieties  are  best  for  the  home  garden? 

Gooseberry. 

1.  What    Is    the    origin    of    the    American    gooseberry?    Of    the 
European   gooseberry? 

2.  What   are  the   crosses   of  the  two  varieties? 

3.  How   is   the   gooseberry   propagated? 

4.  When  is  the  best  time  to  plant  gooseberries? 
E.     What  pruning  is  necessary? 

6.  How  are  gooseberries  marketed? 

7.  What  insects  and  diseases  are  Injurious  to  the  gooseberry? 

Raspberry. 

1.  What  varieties  belong  to  the  European   raspberries? 

2.  What  varieties  belong  to  the  American  raspberries? 

3.  Into   what    two    classes   are    raspberries    divided? 


292  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

4.  How  are  they  propagated? 

6.  How  are  raspberries  raised  from  seed?     From  root  cuttings? 
From  layers? 

6.  What  location  and  soil  is  best  adapted  to  each  class  of  rasp- 
berries? 

7.  How  should  the  land  be  prepared  for  the  raspberry? 

8.  When  should  they  be  planted? 

9.  How  should  the  plants  be  selected? 

10.  How  far  apart  should  the  plants  be  set? 

11.  How  deep  should  raspberries  be  set? 

12.  What  cultivation  is  necessary  for  the  raspberry? 

13.  How  much  pruning  and  thinning  is  necessary  the  first  year? 
The  second  year,  etc.? 

14.  What  mulching  is  best  for  the  raspberry? 

15.  How  and  when  should  it  be  applied? 

16.  How  can  a  good  support  be  made  for  the  canes? 

17.  In  what  ways  may  the  canes  be  winter  protected? 

18.  How  are  the  canes  laid  down  and  covered? 

19.  How  are  they  taken  up  in  the  spring? 

20.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  berries  of  the  two  classes? 

21.  How  are  they   picked  and  marketed? 

Blackberry  and   Dewberry. 

1.  Into  what  groups  may  the  blackberries  be  divided? 

2.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  each? 

3.  How  is  the  blackberry  propagated? 

4.  How  is  the  dewberry  propagated? 

(.  What  soils  are  best  adapted  to  each? 

6.  How  is  the  blackberry  planted  and  cultivated? 

7.  What  pruning  does  the  blackberry  require? 

The  Cranberry. 

1.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  high  and  low  bush  cran- 
berries? 

2.  How  Is  the  trailing  cranberry  cultivated? 

3.  What  is  the  best  location  for  a  cranberry  bed? 

4.  What  soil  is  best  adapted  for  the  growing  of  cranberries? 
6.  How  should  the  land  be  prepared? 

6.  Why  is  sand  important  in  the  cranberry  bog? 

7.  By  what  means  can  the  bog  be  drained? 

8.  Why  should  the  drainage  and  flowage  be  controlled? 

9.  How  should  the  flowage  be  controlled  in  the  fall? 

10.  What  harm  comes  from  freezing  the  plants  in  the  Ice? 

11.  How  long  should  the  water  be  kept  in  the  bog  in  the  spring? 

12.  What  care  is  necessary  in  selecting  the  plants? 

13.  How  are  they  propagated? 

14.  When  should  the  plants  be  set?    Why? 

15.  How  should  the  beds  be  made? 

16.  What  cultivation  is  necessary? 

17.  How  are  cranberries  picked? 

Juneberry,    Buffalo    Berry,    Sand    Cherry   and    Mulberry. 

1.  Where  Is  the  Dwarf  Juneberry  found  most  commonly? 

2.  What  are  its  characteristics? 

3.  How  are  they  propagated? 

4.  What  cultivation  do  they  need? 

5.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  varieties  most  common- 
ly cultivated? 

6.  What  is  the  distribution  of  the  Sand  Cherry? 

7.  What  location  and  soil  is  best  adapted  to  them? 

8.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Sand  Cherry? 

9.  How  are  they  propagated? 

?0,  How  are  they  used  in  grafting? 

11.  What  is  the  Dwarf  Rocky  Mt.  Cherry? 


PERSIMMON.  293 

12.  Where  Is  the  Buffalo  Berry  commonly  found? 

13.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  plant? 

14.  For  what  Is  the  fruit  used? 

15.  How  is  the  plant  propagated? 

16.  Into  what  classes  may  the  Mulberry  be  divided? 

17.  What  variety  Is  best  for  the  Northern  states? 

18.  What  are  its  characteristics? 

19.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  fruit? 

20.  How  is  the  Mulberry  propagated? 

21.  What  care  should  be  taken  in  selecting  plants? 

Persimmon. 

1.  Where  Is  the  American  persimmon  found  native  and  what  Is 
Its  value  for  domestic  use? 

2.  Of  what  country  is  the  Japanese  persimmon  native  and  what 
is  Its  value  as  a  commercial  fruit? 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  NUTS. 

Comparatively  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  growing 
of  any  of  the  nut  trees  in  this  country,  with  the  exception  of  the 
English  walnut.  Most  of  the  American  nuts,  except  the  English 
walnut,  that  reach  our  markets  are  the  chance  productions  of  the 
wild  groves.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  there  is  a  large  sec- 
tion of  this  country  where  nuts  of  some  kind  might  be  grown 
to  advantage.  This  is  especially  true  of  rough  land  in  some  of 
the  Middle  and  Southern  states. 

Nearly  all  of  the  cultivation  of  nuts  in  this  country  up  to  the 
present  time  has  been  done  by  the  growing  of  seedling  trees, 
and  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  grafting,  which  for  many 
years  was  regarded  as  a  very  difficult  matter  with  all  nuts.  Now 
that  successful  grafting  methods  have  been  discovered,  there  is 
less  excuse  for  planting  seedlings.  The  leading  nurserymen  now 
offer  named  varieties  of  the  principal  nut  trees,  or  else  of  trees 
grown  from  selected  seed. 

The  Pecan. 

The  pecan  (Hicoria  pecan)  is  an  important  native  nut  that 
is  used  largely  and  gaining  in  popularity.  It  is  a  near  relative 
of  the  hickories,  several  of  which  produce  edible  nuts.  In  its 
native  habitat,  the  tree  grows  to  a  large  size  and  the  wood  is 
highly  esteemed  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  hickory.  It  is 
native  to  a  large  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  Eastern  and 
Central  Texas  and  a  portion  of  Mexico.  It  is  cultivated  through- 
out most  of  this  section  south  of  Central  Illinois  and  also  in  the 
Southern  states  south  of  the  Potomac  river.  Further  north  it 
is  occasionally  grown,  but  not  profitably,  and  Central  Iowa  may 
be  regarded  as  its  northernmost  limit. 

The  fruit  of  the  pecan  is  borne  on  the  new  growth.  The  male 
flowers  are  at  the  base  of  the  shoot  and  the  female  flowers  near 
the  end.  The  flowers  appear  with  the  leaves  and  are  seldom 
injured  by  spring  frosts.  Trees  from  seed  generally  bear  when 


PECAN.  295 

about  ten  years  old,  and  at  full  bearing  age  they  have  been  known 
to  yield  over  twenty  bushels  to  a  tree. 

Soil  requirements. — The  pecan  does  best  on  the  open,  porous 
clay  loams  of  river  bottoms  and  especially  on  those  that  are 
likely  to  overflow  at  high  water.  It  is  also  grown  successfully 
on  the  sandy  soils  of  southern  Georgia  and  northern  Florida, 
and  even  on  rich  up-lands  it  frequently  produces  well.  The 
most  successful  growers  plant  the  trees  from  40  to  50  feet  apart. 
If  the  trees  are  grown  from  seed,  it  would  be  an  advantage  to 
put  them  nearer  together  and  then  remove  the  unprofitable  ones. 
In  transplanting  the  pecan  it  is  desirable  to  save  as  much  of  the 
tap  root  as  is  possible,  but  it  may  be  shortened  somewhat  with- 
out seriously  interfering  with  its  growth.  The  root  is  often  very 
long  and  it  will  be  found  a  great  convenience  in  transplanting  to 
have  it  somewhat  shortened.  Very  often  a  one-year-old  tree  will 
have  a  root  far  longer  than  the  stem.  The  soil  should  have  the 
best  of  cultivation,  as  the  trees  are  gross  feeders  and  should  be 
kept  growing  rapidly,  especially  when  young  and  not  fully  es- 
tablished. 

Harvesting  and  marketing. — It  is  common  to  harvest  the 
nuts  after  they  have  fallen  to  the  ground.  When  they  are  raked 
together  the  leaves  are  shaken  out  and  the  nuts  dried  off  before 
being  stored.  The  highly  polished  surface  of  nuts  which  are 
seen  in  our  markets  is  attained  by  polishing  them  in  revolving 
barrels  where  they  are  polished  by  rubbing  against  one  another. 
The  great  demand  today  is  for  larger,  thinner-shelled  nuts,  and 
there  seems  to  be  an  almost  unlimited  market  for  them.  Those 
who  have  pecan  trees  in  good  locations  find  them  very  profitable. 
Comparatively  few  of  the  best  nuts  are  sold  at  present,  as  they 
are  in  demand  by  nurserymen  for  planting. 

Insects. — There  are  a  number  of  insects  that  injure  the  pecan 
trees.  Perhaps  the  most  serious  of  these  is  known  as  the 
shuck  worm,  which  penetrates  the  hull  and  causes  the  young 
fruit  to  drop  prematurely.  The  remedy  is  to  gather  and  burn 
the  infested  nuts.  A  web  worm  is  occasionally  injurious  to  the 
foliage,  but  this  may  be  destroyed  in  the  same  manner  as  rec- 
ommended for  the  common  web  worm. 

The  twig  girdler  sometimes  girdles  the  twigs  of  the  pecan, 


296  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

causing  them  to  be  blown  off.  The  worm  will  be  found  in  the 
part  that  falls.  If  these  twigs  are  raked  together  promptly  and 
burned  soon  after  falling,  this  enemy  is  easily  held  in  check. 

Grafting  the  pecan. — The  most  successful  method  of  grafting 
the  pecan  seems  to  be  crown  grafting  of  the  seedlings,  when 
~~"lhey  are  only  an  inch  or  less  in  diameter,  early  in  the  spring 
with  terminal  bud  cions  and  without  wax.  The  stalks  should 
be  cut  off  smoothly,  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  a 
side  cleft  graft  or  whip  graft  used.  When  this  is  done,  the  earth 
should  be  drawn  up  to  the  top  bud  of  the  cion  to  prevent  it 
drying  out.  In  order  to  grow  seedlings,  the  nuts  are  generally 
planted  in  autumn  in  well  drained  soil,  which  is  sufficiently 
loose  so  that  it  does  not  bake  badly;  or,  where  mice  and  squir- 
rels are  abundant,  a  much  better  plan  is  to  stratify  them  in  the 
same  manner  as  recommended  for  peach  pits  and  plant  out  in 
the  spring  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  putting  them 
about  eight  inches  apart  in  rows  four  feet  apart  and  covering 
three  inches  deep.  Rich,  deep  garden  soil  should  be  used  for 
the  seedlings. 

The  Chestnut. 

The  chestnut  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  our  native  nuts 
and  is  widely  sought  after.  In  some  sections  in  Europe,  where 
the  nuts  are  especially  abundant,  they  are  ground  into  flour  and 
used  for  bread  making. 

The  American  chestnut  (Castanea  americana)  forms  a  large 
tree  as  far  north  as  southern  Vermont,  and  west  into  Indiana. 
North  and  west  of  this  range,  it  is  very  uncertain.  It  has,  how- 
ever, been  fruited  in  southeastern  Minnesota  and  occasionally  it 
is  grown  successfully  in  Illinois  and  Iowa.  The  wood  of  this  tree 
is  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil  and  of  rapid  growth, 
hence  is  in  demand  for  railroad  ties  and  telephone  poles.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  promising  trees  for  use  in  new  timber  plantings 
within  its  range.  There  are  few  varieties.  Its  nuts  are  the 
best  in  quality  of  all  known  species.  The  other  species  of  chest- 
nut graft  readily  upon  it. 

The  European  chestnut  (Castenea  sativa)  is  a  native  of  the 
cooler  portions  of  central  and  southern  Europe,  western  Asia  and 
northern  Africa.  The  foliage  of  this  tree  is  thicker  and  more 


CHINQUAPIN.  297 

abruptly  pointed  than  that  of  the  American  chestnut.  Its  burrs  are 
very  large  and  its  nuts  are  larger  but  not  so  sweet  as  the  Ameri- 
can chestnut.  The  skin  enclosing  the  nut  is  bitter  and  tough. 
This  species  is  variously  known  as  European,  Spanish,  French, 
Italian  and  Sweet  Chestnut.  Among  the  best  of  the  European 
varieties  are  Numbo  and  Paragon.  The  latter  is  most  widely 
planted  and  the  most  successful  of  all  cultivated  introduced 
chestnuts.  It  is  sometimes  classed  as  a  hybrid.  Both  of  these 
nuts  originated  in  the  United  States  and  are  of  good  quality. 

Japan  chestnut  (Castanea  crenata). — This  tree  is  said  to 
reach  a  height  of  fifty  feet  in  Japan  but  the  varieties  that  are 
grown  for  fruit  are  dwarfish  in  form  and  slender,  with  a  close 
head.  Its  leaves  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  American 
or  European  chestnuts  and  the  burrs  are  small  with  a  thin,  pa- 
pery lining  and  short  spines.  The  nuts  are  large  and  glossy, 
but  inferior  to  the  other  chestnuts  in  quality  as  a  rule,  though 
good  when  cooked.  A  few  varieties  are  of  good  quality  when 
fresh.  Among  the  best  of  the  Japanese  chestnuts  are  Parry  and 
Reliance,  both  of  which  are  of  fair  quality. 

Chinquapin  (Castanea  pumila),  (C.  alnifoliaj. — The  Chinqua- 
pins are  dwarf  chestnuts,  extending,  in  their  native  range,  from 
Massachusetts  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  The  fruit  of  the 
Chinquapins  is  edible  and  used  in  a  local  way  throughout  their 
range. 

Propagation. — The  different  species  of  the  chestnut  are  usu- 
ally propagated  from  seed,  which  may  be  sown  as  soon  as 
gathered  in  autumn,  or  stratified  and  sown  in  the  spring  in 
rich,  porous  soil.  They  may  be  whip-grafted  in  the  nursery 
when  one  year  old.  This  should  be  done  by  using  dormant  cions 
after  the  buds  have  swollen  and  covering  with  wax  in  the  or- 
dinary way. 

Top-working  of  large  trees  has  not  been  successful  except 
where  it  has  been  practiced  on  the  young  sprouts.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  to  secure  a  good  union,  and  if  possible  the  cion 
should  unite  with  the  stock  on  both  sides. 

The  flowers  of  the  chestnut  open  in  early  summer  and  the 
long,  conspicuous,  light  colored,  male  catkins  are  quite  ornamen- 
tal. The  pistillate  flowers  are  Inconspicuous  and  grow  from 


298  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

the  axils  of  the  leaves  on  the  new  growth.  Some  growers  think 
it  necessary  to  have  the  pollen  of  different  trees  intermingle  in 
order  to  get  the  best  results.  This  idea  is  borne  out  by  the 
fact  that  solitary  trees  often  fail  to  set  fruit. 

Planting  and  care. — Ordinary  seedlings  of  the  American 
chestnut  commence  to  bear  when  from  eight  to  fifteen  years  old, 
while  those  that  are  grafted  will  frequently  bear  inside  of  five 
years.  On  account  of  this,  some  growers  follow  the  practice  of 
grafting  all  of  their  seedlings.  It  is  probable  that  seedlings  would 
bear  as  quickly  as  grafted  trees  if  they  were  girdled  as  recom- 
mended for  the  grape.  Where  natural  groves  are  used  for  grow- 
ing nuts,  the  reproduction  will  often  come  from  sprouts.  If  de- 
sired, these  may  be  grafted  and  cared  for  the  same  as  seedlings. 
In  any  case,  however,  the  sprouts  should  be  thinned  out  so  that 
the  trees  can  take  on  their  natural  form.  Where  the  ground  is 
ov-ergrown  with  brush,  it  will  be  found  a  good  plan,  when  the 
trees  are  once  fairly  started,  and  out  of  reach  of  stock,  to  pas- 
ture the  land  with  sheep.  This  will  destroy  much  of  the  brush 
and  the  lower  leaves  on  the  chestnut  trees,  giving  them  a  healthy 
pruning.  It  will  also  have  a  tendency  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
fire,  as  the  sheep  mix  the  fallen  leaves  with  the  soil  and  thus  pre- 
vent the  collection  of  large  masses  of  leaves  about  the  stems  of 
the  trees.  If  the  trees  are  to  be  planted  out,  the  American  spe- 
cies should  be  set  from  40  to  50  feet  apart  each  way.  The  for- 
eign kinds  do  not  grow  so  large  and  they  may  be  planted  nearer. 

The  nuts  are  prepared  for  market  by  putting  them  in  a  suit- 
able vessel  and  then  pouring  scalding  hot  water  over  them  as 
soon  as  gathered.  By  this  means  the  eggs  and  larvae  of  the  in- 
sects in  them  are  destroyed.  The  nuts  should  be  gathered 
promptly  after  falling  and  the  scalding  done  at  once,  otherwise 
the  eggs  of  the  weevil  in  the  nuts  will  have  a  chance  to  de- 
velop and  will  injure  their  sale.  The  nuts  should  stand  in  the 
hot  water  for  about  fifteen  minutes,  after  which  they  should  be 
taken  out  and  carefully  dried. 

There  are  several  insects  and  diseases  that  affect  the  chest- 
nut. The  most  harmful  is  probably  the  weevil,  whose  eggs  are 
laid  in  the  nut,  but  no  satisfactory  remedy  has  been  found  for 
It.  The  leaf  diseases  are  subject  to  control  by  Bordeaux  mixture. 


ENGLISH  WALNUT.  299 

English  Walnut. 

The  English  walnut  (Juglans  regia)  is  cultivated  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  Eastern  states  south  of  Connecticut  and  west  into 
Texas,  but  in  the  section  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  it  has 
not  attained  commercial  importance.  In  southern  California, 
however,  it  is  grown  very  successfully  within  a  short  distance 
of  the  coast  where  the  water  table  is  near  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  Back  from  the  coast,  it  may  also  be  grown  in  favorable 
locations,  but  the  shucks  do  not  separate  from  the  nuts  so  well 
and  hence  the  product  is  not  nearly  so  valuable  as  the  product 
from  sections  where  the  climate  is  somewhat  humid. 

The  flowers  of  the  walnuts  are  monoecious,  the  male  flow- 
ers being  produced  in  catkins  and  the  pistillate  flowers  at  the 
ends  of  the  short  branches  appearing  with  the  leaves. 

Propagation. — Most  of  the  trees  in  the  Eastern  states  are 
grown  from  seed;  the  same  is  true  of  a  large  portion  of  the  or- 
chards in  southern  California,  although  in  the  last  few  years 
there  has  been  a  large  number  of  grafted  trees  planted.  When 
grown  from  seed,  it  is  customary  to  select  the  largest,  thinnest 
shelled  nuts  from  trees  that  are  hardy  and  productive,  and 
that  start  late  in  the  spring.  These  are  stratified  over  winter 
in  the  same  manner  as  peach  pits.  They  are  generally  allowed 
to  sprout  in  the  spring  before  planting,  when  they  are  set  about 
one  foot  apart  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  For  this  purpose  rich, 
open,  porous  soil  should  be  used.  They  are  generally  large 
enough  for  budding  the  first  season.  If  they  are  to  be  planted  in 
an  orchard  without  budding,  it  is  customary  to  leave  them  for 
two  or  three  years  in  the  nursery.  The  trees  are  generally  bud- 
ded by  the  shield  or  ring  method.  Cleft-grafting  and  whip-graft- 
ing have  also  been  successfully  used. 

Harvesting  and  marketing. — In  the  best  localities  for  the 
English  Walnut,  the  shucks  open  on  the  trees  and  the  nuts  fall 
to  the  ground,  where  they  are  easily  gathered  once  or  twice  a 
week,  and  taken  to  the  drying  house.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary 
to  jar  the  trees  in  order  to  get  the  nuts  in  season.  It  is  not  de- 
sirable to  beat  the  trees  with  poles,  as  it  frequently  destroys 
many  of  the  fruit  buds.  The  nuts  are  dried  by  exposure  to  sun 
or  by  artificial  heat. 


300  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Japan  walnut. — The  Japan  walnut  (Juglans  sieboldiana)  is 
now  cultivated  in  an  experimental  way  and  is  much  hardier  than 
the  English  Walnut  which  it  somewhat  resembles,  although  not 
BO  hardy  as  the  Black  Walnut  or  Butternut.  This  tree  gives 
promise  of  being  productive  even  as  far  north  as  central  Minne- 
sota. The  nuts  are  small  and  more  like  the  Black  Walnut  than 
the  English  Walnut,  and  probably  of  little  importance  commer- 
cially. 

The  Black  Walnut  and  Butternut  are  prized  for  their  timber 
and  shade  as  well  as  for  their  nuts.  These  are  frequently  gather- 
ed and  marketed  in  considerable  quantities  and  there  is  generally 
a  good  demand  for  them.  The  shucks  should  be  removed  and 
the  nuts  dried  before  they  are  marketed.  Black  Walnuts  have 
been  planted  in  considerable  quantities  in  Minnesota  and  Iowa 
for  fence  posts  and  for  their  nuts. 

The  Almond. 

The  Almond  (Prunus  amygdalus)  resembles  the  peach  in 
habit  of  growth,  flowering,  etc.  The  nut  is  really  a  peach  in 
which  the  flesh  portion  is  obliterated.  It  is-  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  bitter  and  sweet  almond.  The  sweet  class  is  di- 
vided into  the  hard  and  soft  shell  types.  The  hard  shell  type  is 
scarcely  grown,  but  the  soft  shell  type  produces  the  edible  al- 
monds of  commerce.  The  bitter  almond  has  a  hard  shell  and  Its 
chief  use  is  as  a  stock  for  the  cultivated  kinds.  It  is  also  grown 
in  the  Mediterranean  district  for  the  bitter  kernel,  which  is  used 
In  the  manufacture  of  flavoring  extracts  and  prussic  acid.  The 
Almond  is  cultivated  in  a  very  limited  area  confined  mostly  to  a 
few  small  districts  in  California,  Utah,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 
The  tree  is  nearly  as  hardy  as  the  peach,  but  on  account  of  the 
flowers  opening  so  very  early,  they  are  almost  always  destroyed 
by  frost,  except  in  a  few  favored  districts.  The  tree  comes  into  bear- 
ing from  two  to  four  years  after  budding,  and  is  generally  at  its 
best  when  from  six  to  nine  years  of  age.  Five  pounds  of  hulled  al- 
monds per  tree  is  reported  as  a  good  average  crop  in  California 
orchards.  The  nuts  begin  to  ripen  about  the  middle  of  August. 
It  is  desirable  to  have  varieties  mixed  in  order  to  secure  good 
pollination.  Much  disappointment  has  been  occasioned  by  plant- 
Ing  the  almond  in  situations  not  suited  for  it,  or  possibly  by 
the  planting  of  only  one  variety  in  a  large  area. 


HAZEL.  301 

Soil  and  planting.— The  soil  for  almonds  should  be  light, 
warm  and  well  drained.  The  trees,  like  the  peach,  will  stand  much 
drought  but  will  yield  good  crops  only  on  rich,  productive  soil. 
It  is,  however,  impatient  of  too  much  water  in  the  soil.  The 
trees  are  generally  planted  about  24  feet  apart  each  way.  It  is 
customary  to  do  considerable  pruning  to  the  tree  in  order  to  get 
it  in  good  form  while  it  is  young,  after  which  little  pruning  is 
done. 

Propagation. — The  almond  is  grown  almost  entirely  by  bud- 
ding on  seedlings  of  the  sweet  or  bitter  almond,  though  it  is 
sometimes  worked  upon  peach  stocks.  The  seedlings  are  han- 
dled in  very  much  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  peach  and  the 
trees  are  planted  in  an  orchard  when  one  year  old  from  the  bud. 
The  peach  and  the  prune  D'Argen  are  also  successfully  grown  on 
the  almond. 

Marketing.— Where  the  summer  air  is  very  dry,  the  hulls 
open  readily  and  the  unstained  nuts  are  in  good  condition  for 
marketing  and  require  no  further  care.  In  some  sections,  how- 
ever, the  nuts  are  more  or  less  stained  by  rains  and  then  recourse 
is  had  by  bleaching  them  with  sulfur  fumes.  As  the  sulfur 
fumes  do  not  penetrate  to  the  kernel,  the  nuts  are  not  injured  by 
this  treatment.  The  only  advantage  is  that  it  gives  them  a  little 
better  appearance.  If  the  hulls  do  not  separate  readily  from 
the  nuts  it  is  customary  to  use  what  is  known  as  an  almond 
huller,  by  means  of  which  the  hulls  are  pulled  off.  Nuts  that 
are  BO  badly  stained  that  they  cannot  be  made  marketable  are 
generally  sold  for  confectioner's  use. 
The  Hazel. 

The  European  hazels  are  known  botanically  as  Corylus  ar  el- 
tana,  C.  pontica  and  C.  maxima,  and  in  Europe,  are  cultivated  on 
an  extensive  scale  and  yield  the  most  filberts  of  commerce.  The 
species  ordinarily  grown  in  Europe  have  shown  themselves  quite 
liable  to  disease  in  this  country  and  have  not  been  successfully 
cultivated  here.  Our  two  native  species  have  a  wide  range  and 
are  quite  variable,  some  plants  bearing  fruit  of  very  good  size 
and  quality. 

The  American  hazels  are  known  botanically  as  Corylus  amer- 
icana,  C.  rostrata  and  C.  calif ornica.  They  are  of  dwarf  form  and 


302  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

can  perhaps  be  cultivated  to  advantage  on  open,  loose  soils  of 
moderate  or  poor  fertility,  in  rows  eight  feet  apart,  although  this 
has  not  proven  encouraging  in  the  few  experiments  tried.  Some 
of  the  foreign  species  are  quite  large  and  grow  to  the  height  of 
12  or  14  feet.  The  plants  are  generally  propagated  by  seed  lay- 
ers and  sometimes  budding  is  practiced. 

The  flowers. — The  flowers  are  monoecious  and  form  on  tha 
new  wood.  The  male  flowers  are  grouped  in  the  form  of  small 
catkins  that  may  be  seen  on  the  bushes  all  winter.  In  the  spring, 
these  elongate  and  the  pollen  is  distributed  by  the  wind.  The 
female  flowers  are  inconspicuous  and  form  a  star-like  tuft  of 
crimson  stigmas  that  push  out  from  the  rather  large  buds  at 
the  time  the  male  flowers  elongate.  These  flowers  open  early 
in  the  spring. 


QUESTIONS— CHAPTER  XV. 
Nuts. 

1.  Of  what  country  is  the  pecan  a  native? 

2.  What  soil  is  best  for  pecan  growing? 

3.  How  should  they  be  planted  and  cultivated? 

4.  How  are  pecans   harvested  and   marketed? 

5.  What  Insects  are  injurious  to  the  pecan? 

6.  How  are  pecans  grafted? 

7.  How  are  they  propagated  from  seed? 

8.  What  are  the  characteristics  and  distribution  of  the  American 
chestnut?    Of  the  European  chestnut?    Of  the  Japanese  chestnut? 

9.  To  what  extent  are  they  grown? 

10.  What  are  the  Chinquapins? 

11.  How  are  chestnuts  propagated? 

12.  How  should  chestnuts  be  planted  and  cared  for? 

13.  How  should  chestnuts  be  cared  for  before  marketing? 

14.  What  insects  and  diseases  injure  the  chestnut? 

15.  Over  what  territory  Is  the  English  walnut  distributed? 

16.  How  are  they  propagated? 

17.  How  are  the  walnuts  harvested? 

18.  How  are  they  marketed? 

19.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Japanese  walnut? 

20.  What  are  the  characteristics   of  the  almond? 

21.  What  soil  Is  best  adapted  to  it? 

22.  How  should  the  almond  be  planted? 

23.  How  is  the  almond  propagated? 

24.  How  Is  It  harvested  and  marketed? 

25.  How  Is  the  hazel  grown  in  Europe? 

26.  How  is  It  propagated? 

27.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Hazel  flower? 


APPENDIX. 


SPRAYING  CALENDAR. 

This  spraying  calendar  is  taken  almost  entirely  from  Bul- 
letin 89  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  by  Prof.  S.  A.  Beach  and 
B.  E.  Little.  The  changes  made  from  the  original  are  noted. 


General   Treatment  For  The  Apple. 

When    to    Spray.  What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 

1.  When     the     green  Bordeaux  mixture  for  scab,  canker  and 
tips    of    the    first    leaves  leaf    spot   diseases    with    Paris    Green    or 
burst   the   buds.     May  be  other    arsenical    poison    for    bud    moths, 
omitted     if     insects     and  case     bearers,     tent     caterpillars,    canker 
scab  are  not  abundant.  worms   and   other  leaf-eating   insects. 

2.  Just  before  the  bios-  Bordeaux    mixture    for    diseases    men- 
soms   open.                                   tioned  under  1.     Paris  Green  or  other  ar- 
senical   poison    for   curculio    and   the   In- 
sects mentioned  under  1.     The  most  Im- 
portant single  treatment  against  the  scab! 

3.  Just  after  the  bios-  Bordeaux  mixture  for  diseases  mentlon- 
soms  fall.                                      ed  under  1.     Paris  Green  or  other  arseni- 
cal poison  for  codlin  moth,  curculio  and 
leaf  eating  insects.     The  most  important 
treatment  In   fighting  codlin   moth! 

4.  Ten  to  twenty  days  Bordeaux   mixture   for  scab,   bitter  rot 
after  3.                                          and  other  diseases.     Paris  Green  or  other 

arsenical  poison  for  codlin  moth  curcullo 
and   leaf-eating  insects. 

5.  Late    July    or    early  Bordeaux  mixture  for  scab,  bitter  rot, 
August.                                          fly  speck,  sooty  blotch  and  other  diseases. 

Paris   Green   or  other   poison   for   second 
brood   of  codlin   moth.     Important! 

Special  treatment  early      Lime-sulfur     wash     for     oyster     shell 
spring  before  buds  break,  scale  and  other  scale  Insects. 


304 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


General  Treatment  For  Cherries. 


When   to    Spray. 

1.  Just  before  the  blos- 
soms open. 

2.  Just  after  the  blos- 
soms fall. 

3.  Ten  to  fifteen  days 
later  than  2. 

4.  Just    after    fruit    Is 
picked. 

5.  From  2  to  3  weeks 
after  4. 

6.  When    cherry    slugs 
are  first  seen  on  leaves. 


What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 
Bordeaux  mixture  for  fruit  rot. 

Bordeaux  mixture  for  fruit  rot  and  leaf 
spot.    Arsenate   of  lead   for   curculio. 

Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  for  fruit 
rot   and  leaf  spot. 

Bordeaux  mixture  for  leaf  spot. 
Repeat  4. 


Dust    or    spray    with    Paris    Green    or 
other  poison. 


When   to    Spray 


1.    About  ten  days  be- 
fore growth  starts. 


2.    Just  before  the  blos- 
soms open. 


3.     Just  after  the  blos- 
soms  fall. 


4.     About  15  days  after 
the  blossoms  fall. 


5.     Soon  after  the  mid- 
dle  of   June. 


General  Treatment  For  Plums. 

What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 


Copper  sulfate  solution  (2  Ibs.  to  50 
gallons  of  water)  for  Plum  Pocket.  (S. 
B.  G.) 

Arsenate  of  lead  for  curculio.  Bordeaux 
mixture  for  fruit  rot  on  blossoms. 

Bordeaux  mixture  for  fruit  rot  and 
leaf-spot.  Arsenate  of  lead  for  curculio. 
(Dilute  the  Bordeaux  about  one-half  for 
Japanese  varieties.) 

Repeat  2. 


Repeat  2. 


6.    Late    July   or   early 
August. 


7.    On  first  appearance 
of   Insects. 


Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  soap  or 
eau  celeste  soap  for  fruit  rot  and  leaf 
spot. 

Arsenate  of  lead  for  web  worms  and 
other  leaf-eating  insects. 


General    Treatment   For   Peaches. 

When  to    Spray.  What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 


1.  Before  the  buds 
•well;  surely  before  April 
first. 


Bordeaux  mixture  or  lime-sulfur  wash 
(or  copper  sulphate  solution,  S.  B.  G.) 
for  leaf  curl  and  fruit  rot. 


APPENDIX. 


305 


General   Treatment  For  Pears. 


When   to    Spray. 
Same  as  for  the  apple. 

When  twig  blight  first 
appears,  and  during  the 
dormant  season  when  the 
leaves  are  off. 


What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 

Treat  same  as  for  apple  scab,  leaf  spot 
and  Insects. 

Cut  affected  branches  back  to  sound 
wood  and  burn  them.  Keep  tools  disin- 
fected by  wiping  with  cloth  saturated 
with  kerosene  or  other  disinfectant  after 
each  branch  is  cut. 

Before  buds  open  in  spring  spray  with 
lime-sulfur  wash. 


General 
When    to    Spray. 

1.  Just   before    growth 
starts. 

2.  When  the  leaves  are 
one-third  grown. 

3.  Just  before  the  blos- 
soms  open. 

4.  Just  after  the  fruit 
sets. 

5.  10  to   20  days  after 
4. 

6.  10   to   20  days  after 


Treatment   For  Grapes. 

What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 

Bordeaux  mixture  or  sulfate  of  cop- 
per solution  (1  pound  to  25  gallons  of  wa- 
ter) for  grape  rot.  (S.  B  G.) 

Bordeaux  mixture  for  mildews  and 
black  rot.  IMPORTANT! 

Repeat  2. 

Repeat   2.     IMPORTANT! 

Repeat  2. 

Repeat  2. 


General  Treatment  For  Currant  and  Gooseberry. 


When   to    Spray. 

1.  When     worms     first 
appear. 

2.  When  fruit  is  about 
half  grown. 

3.  After  fruit  is  pick- 
ed. 

4.  About  2  weeks  aft- 
er 3. 


What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 

Paris  Green  or  other  arsenical  poison 
for  the  "worms."  Bordeaux  mixture  for 
leaf  spot. 

Repeat  1. 

Bordeaux  mixture  for  leaf  spot. 

Repeat  3. 


General    Treatment    For   Strawberry. 


When   to    Spray. 

When  growth  begins 
and  later  as  often  as 
necessary. 

After  picking  the  fruit. 

At  first  appearance  of 
the  leaf  roller. 


What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 
Bordeaux    mixture    for    "rust"    or   leaf 
spot. 

Cut  and  burn  foliage  on  windy  day. 
Arsenical  poison   every  week  if  neces- 
sary, but  not  after  fruit  Is  half  grown. 


POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 


General    Treatment    For    Raspberry,    Blackberry    and    Dewberry. 


When   to   Spray. 

When  orange  rust  ap- 
pears. Note. — This  dis- 
ease is  easily  recognized 
by  the  bright  orange  col- 
or on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaf.  The  whole  cane 
looks  sickly. 

When  anthracnose  and 
other  cane  diseases  are 
doing  serious  damage. 


What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 
Dig  plants  at  once  and  burn. 


After  leaves  drop  in  fall  or  in  early 
spring,  cut  and  burn  over  the  wnole  af- 
fected patch. 


General   Treatment  For  Potato. 


When   to   Spray. 

Begin  when  plants  are 
about  8  inches  high  or 
when  beetles  first  appear 
and  spray  at  intervals  of 
from  10  to  15  days  till 
growth  stops. 

Spray  more  frequently 
In  hot,  damp  weather  and 
less  often  in  dry  weather. 

Soak  seed  potatoes  two 
hours. 


What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 

Bordeaux  mixture  combined  with  Parts 
Green  or  other  poison  for  early  blight 
and  late  blight  and  rot,  also  for  flea 
beetles,  blister  beetles,  and  Colorado  po- 
tato beetles.  Make  strong  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture, using  at  least  one  pound  of  cop- 
per sulfate  to  make  3  gallons  of  the 
mixture. 


To  prevent  potato  scab,  use  commercial 
formalin  (40  per  cent  solution)  1  pint  to 
30  gallons  of  water.  This  is  enough  for 
twenty  bushels  of  seed. 


General   Treatment  For  Cucumbers,     Squashes  and  Melons. 


When  to   Spray. 

When  young  plants 
come  through  the  ground; 
repeat  trequently. 

About  1  month  after 
planting.  Repeat  at  In- 
tervals of  10  day 


What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 
Tobacco  dust  for  striped  beetle. 


Spray     with      Bordeaux     mixture     for 
blight,   flea  beetles  and  striped  beetles. 


General   Treatment    For   Cabbage   and   Cauliflower. 
When  to   Spray.  What  to  Spray  With  and  What  For. 


When  "worms"  appear. 
Repeat  when  necessary. 

Lice  or  aphis. 


Paris  Green  or  other  arsenical  poison 
in  dust,  or  in  resin-lime  mixture.  Do 
not  apply  poison  after  heading  begins. 

Bury  the  affected  plants. 


APPENDIX.  307 

General  Treatment  For  All   Kinds  of  Plants. 
What  to  Spray  For.  What   to  Spray  With  and  When. 

All    leaf-eating    insects.          Paris  Green  or  other  arsenical  poisons 
such  as  slugs,  caterpillars,      when   insects   first   appear, 
beetles,  etc. 

Sucking  insects,  such  as          Tobacco  dust  or  tobacco  infusion  with 
plant  lice  and  true  bugs.       whale-oil    soap    or    kerosene    emulsion. 

Small  plants  or  ends  of  twigs  are  best 
treated  by  dipping. 

Scale    Insects,    such   as         Spray    with    the    lime-sulfur    wash    in 
oyster  shell  scale,   scurfy       spring  before  the  buds  open, 
bark  louse  and  San  Jose 
scale. 

FUNGICIDES  AND   INSECTICIDES. 

Sprays  are  preventive  and  not  curative  and  therefore  must  be  ap- 
plied before  the  injury  becomes  apparent.  After  a  fungus  has  gained 
entrance  to  the  fruit  or  foliage  it  cannot  be  reached,  but  the  infection 
may  be  prevented  by  coating  the  parts  with  a  fungicide  such  as  Bor- 
deaux Mixture,  which  prevents  the  germination  of  the  spores  of  the 
fungus. 

Fungicides. 
Bordeaux  Mixture: 

Copper  sulfate  (blue  vitriol)  5  pounds. 

Quicklime  (not  slaked),  not  less  than  3J/£  pounds  or  more  than 

6  pounds. 

Water,    50  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulfate  and  dilute  to  from  25  to  35  gallons. 
Slake  the  lime  and  add  enough  water  to  it  to  complete  the  required  60 
gallons;  then  pour  the  two  solutions  together.  Lastly,  add  any  arseni- 
cal poisons  which  are  to  be  combined  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 
This  is  a  general  fungicide  for  all  fruit  plants. 

Testing  Bordeaux  Mixture.  To  determine  if  the  Bordeaux  mixture 
is  safe  to  use  on  tender  foliage,  one  of  three  simple  tests  may  be  used: 

(a)  Insert  the  tip  of  a  knife  for  at  least  one  minute,  when  if  me- 
tallic copper  forms  on  it,  i.  e.,  the  tip  is  the  color  of  copper,   more 
lime  should  be  added.     If  on  the  other  hand  the  steel  remains  un- 
changed it  is  safe  to  conclude  the  mixture  is  all  right. 

(b)  Pour  some  of  the  mixture  into  a  shallow  dish;  then  blow  into 
it  for  at  least  one-half  minute,  when,  if  properly  made,  a  thin  scum- 
like  oil  will  form  on  the  surface. 

(c)  Pour  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium 
into  the  Bordeaux  mixture.     If  there  is  not  enough  lime  present,    a 
dark  reddish-brown  substance  will  form.     Ferrocyanide  of  potassium  is 
known  as  yellow  prussiate  of  potash.     It  is  a  very  deadly  poison.     To 
prepare  it  for  use  add  about  ten  times  its  bulk  of  water. 

Bordeaux  mixture  should  always  be  well  stirred  before  it  is  tested. 
Bordeaux  Dont's.  Don't  use  iron  or  tin  vessels  for  mixing;  don't 
use  air-slaked  lime;  don't  pour  in  the  coarser  particles  of  lime;  don't 
make  more  than  can  be  used  in  one  day — it  should  be  mixed  fresh 
every  day. 
Eau  Celeste  and  Soap: 

Copper  sulfate,  1  pound. 
Ammonia,  strong  (26°  Baume),  3  pints. 
Soap,  1  pound. 
Water,  50  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  10  gallons  of  water.  In  a  separate  vessel, 
not  iron  or  tin,  dissolve  the  copper  sulfate  in  40  gallons  of  water 


308  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

and  add  the  ammonia;  stir  well  and  add  the  soap.  This  is  a  good 
fungicide  to  use  in  place  of  Bordeaux  mixture  when  the  fruit  is  full 
grown. 

Ammoniacal  Copper  Carbonate  and  Soap: 

Copper  carbonate,  6  ounces. 

Ammonia,  strong,  3  pints. 

Soap,  1  pound. 

Water,  50  gallons. 

Dilute  the  ammonia  with  water  and  use  as  much  of  it  as  Is 
necessary  to  dissolve  the  copper  carbonate;  add  water  to  make  40 
gallons.  Dissolve  the  soap  in  10  gallons  of  water  and  pour  into  the 
copper  carbonate  solution.  The  dissolved  copper  carbonate  loses 
strength  when  left  exposed  to  the  air,  but  it  may  be  kept  all  right  in 
stopped  bottles  or  jugs.  This  is  used  when  the  fruit  is  nearly  ripe 
because  it  shows  less  than  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Potassium  Sulfide  or  Liver  of  Sulfur: 
Potassium  sulfide,  3  ounces. 
Water,  6  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  potassium  sulfide  in  the  water.  Apply  at  once. 
This  mixture  deteriorates  rapidly  and  should  not  be  prepared  un- 
til ready  for  application.  This  is  an  effective  spray  for  mildew  on 
gooseberries. 

Lime-Sulfur  Wash: 

Lime,  15  pounds. 

Sulfur,  15  pounds. 

Water,  50  gallons. 

Place  the  lime  in  a  kettle  and  slake  it  with  hot  water  so  that 
it  forms  an  even  white  paste,  then  add  water  until  it  makes  a  thin 
whitewash.  Blend  the  sulfur  with  w^ter  into  a  thin  paste  and  add 
to  the  whitewash  and  mix  thoroughly.  Boil  one  hour,  stirring  frequent- 
ly to  keep  from  caking  on  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  and  adding  water 
from  time  to  time  to  replace  that  which  has  boiled  away.  Dilute  to  50 
gallons  and  bring  to  the  boiling  point  again.  Strain  it  boiling  hot 
into  the  spray  tank  through  wire  screen  and  apply  as  hot  as  possible. 
It  should  be  boiled  until  it  is  a  brick  red  color  and  until  the  sediment, 
when  it  has  settled,  is  brownish  or  yellowish  green.  Salt  is  recom- 
mended to  be  added  to  the  sulfur  pound  for  pound,  but  it  may  be 
omitted  with  no  material  disadvantage.  Use  good  fresh  stone  lime 
which  slakes  free  from  grit  and  dirt.  Either  flowers  of  sulfur  or 
light  or  heavy  flour  of  sulfur  may  be  used.  The  flowers  of  sulfur 
goes  into  solution  most  readily. 

In  orchard  practice  this  wash  is  mostly  used  against  insects  which 
are  found  on  the  trees  when  they  are  dormant.  It  has  proved  very 
effective  against  the  San  Jose  Scale,  oyster  shell  scale,  the  scurfy 
scale,  the  case  bearers  and  other  insects  which  pass  the  winter  on  the 
trees.  It  was  formerly  customary  to  add  salt  to  this  wash  in  order  to 
make  the  wash  more  adhesive,  but  later  experience  seems  to  show  that 
is  not  effective. 

Copper  Sulfate  Solution: 

Copper  sulfate  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  twenty-five  gallons  of 
water  is  used  for  the  prevention  of  grape  rot,  plum  pocket  and  peach 
leaf  curl.  Some  experiments  seem  to  show  that  good  results  will  fol- 
low from  an  application  of  this  kind  on  apples,  cherries,  and  some 
other  trees  and  plants.  This  solution  should  only  be  applied  to  dor- 
mant plants,  and  it  is  probably  best  to  apply  it  early  in  the  spring, 
at  least  two  weeks  before  there  is  any  sign  of  vegetation.  If  applied 
after  the  plants  have  started,  injury  will  result.  Its  object  ia  to  de- 
stroy the  spores  of  injurious  diseases  that  may  be  on  the  plants. 


APPENDIX.  309 

Insecticides. 
Paris  Green: 

Dry  Paris  Green — Flour,  20  pounds. 

Paris   Green,    1    pound. 

MIX  the  two  and  dust  the  plants  when  they  are  moist  from  dew 
or  rain. 

Wet  Paris  Green— Paris  Green,  1  pound. 

Bordeaux  mixture  or  water,  50-300  gallons. 

For  apples  or  pears  use  1  pound  to  150  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture or  water.  If  water  is  used  add  2  pounds  of  fresh  slaked  lime 
to  prevent  injury  to  the  foliage. 

For  cherries  or  plums  use  1  pound  Paris  Green  to  300  gallons  of 
Bordeaux  mixture  or  water. 

For  potatoes  use  1  pound  Paris  Green  to  75  gallons  of  Bordeaux 
mixture  or  water. 

For  cabbages  and  cauliflowers  use  1  pound  Paris  Green  to  80  gal- 
lons resin  lime  mixture  after  the  plants  begin  to  head. 

Arsenlte  of  Soda: 

White  Arsenic,  1  pound. 

Sal  Soda,  4  pounds. 

Water,  1  gallon. 

Mix  and  boil  about  15  minutes  or  until  the  arsenic  is  all  dissolved. 
Add  just  enough  water  to  make  up  for  that  lost  in  boiling,  then  put 
in  jugs  or  bottles  until  needed.  Two  quarts  of  this  solution  may  be 
used  in  the  place  of  1  pound  of  Paris  Green  by  adding  about  4  pounds 
of  fresh  slaked  lime  or  by  combining  with  Bordeaux  mixture  in  which 
there  is  an  excess  of  lime.  This  spray  forms  a  cheap  substitute  for 
Paris  Green,  but  is  liable  to  burn  the  foliage  of  tender  plants. 

Arsenate  of  Lead: 

Lead  acetate  (sugar  of  lead),  22  ounces. 

Sodium  arsenate,   8  ounces. 

Water  or  Bordeaux  mixture,  100  gallons 

Dissolve  each  separately;  then  mix  the  two  together  and  pour 
this  mixture  Into  the  required  amount  of  water,  or  if  it  is  to  be  used 
with  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  pour  it  into  the  lime  wash  before  that  Is 
mixed  with  the  copper  sulfate  solution. 

The  sodium  arsenate  dissolves  in  water  quite  readily.  Dissolve  It 
In  about  a  gallon  of  water.  Into  it  pour  the  dissolved  lead  acetate  to 
the  required  amount  and  let  it  settle.  Then  take  a  small  quantity  of 
the  liquid  in  a  cup  to  test  it.  This  is  done  by  adding  to  it  a  little 
more  of  the  lead  acetate  solution.  If  a  white  substance  then  forms, 
it  signifies  that  not  enough  of  the  lead  has  been  used  to  combine 
with  all  of  the  arsenic,  and  therefore  more  lead  acetate  should  be 
added  to  the  mixture.  Then  pour  this  mixture  into  the  lime  wash  If 
It  is  to  be  used  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 

While  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  made  at  home  by  the  above  form- 
ula, yet  it  is  commonly  purchased  in  a  paste  form  in  sealed  packages. 
The  home  made  article  is  more  finely  divided  and  stays  in  suspension 
longer  than  the  commercial  form:  yet  the  difficulty  of  getting  re- 
liable materials  with  which  to  make  it  oft-times  prevents  its  being  a 
success. 

Arsenate  of  lead  has  the  merit  of  adhering  well  to  and  being 
harmless  to  the  foliage.  As  a  rule,  about  three  pounds  of  arsenate 
of  lead  are  required  for  fifty  gallons  of  water,  while  of  Paris  Green, 
its  most  popular  competitor,  about  one-third  to  one-half  pound  would 
be  required.  This  would  make  the  arsenate  of  lead  cost  for  spraying 
purposes  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  times  as  much  a-s  Paris  Green. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  arsenate  of  lead  adheres  so  tenaciously  to  the 
foliage  that  less  applications  of  it  are  usually  necessary.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  in  rainy  weather.  This  feature  of  it,  together  with  lt« 


310  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

harmlessness  to  the  foliage,  makes  it  a  very  desirable  insecticide.     It 
is  especially  effective  against  the  codlin  moth  and  the  curculio. 

Soap: 

Whale  Oil  Soap,  1   pound. 

Water,  6  gallons. 

Whale  oil  soap  or  other  cheap  soap  Is  used  for  plant  lice  and 
other  soft  bodied  insects.  When  the  leaves  are  off  the  trees  it  may  be 
used  as  strong  as  2  pounds  to  the  gallon  of  water.  It  is  sometimes 
used  in  treating  scale  insects. 

Hellebore: 

Hellebore,  1  pound. 

Water,  25  gallons. 

Hellebore  may  be  mixed  with  three  or  four  parts  of  flour  and 
dusted  on  the  insects,  or  it  may  be  mixed  with  water  and  used  as  a 
spray.  It  is  especially  useful  in  combating  worms  on  currants  and 
gooseberries  while  the  fruit  is  ripening,  because  it  may  be  used  with- 
out serious  danger  of  poisoning  the  fruit. 
Pyrethrum: 

Pyrethrum  powder,    1   ounce. 

Water,  3  gallons. 

For  dry  applications,  mix  thoroughly  one  part  by  weight  of  In- 
sect powder  with  four  of  cheap  flour  and  keep  in  a  closed  vessel  for 
twenty-four  hours  before  dusting  over  the  plants.  Pyrethrum,  if  fresh 
and  pure,  can  be  made  to  do  very  effectual  work.  It  should  be  kept  in 
tightly  sealed  cans.  If  the  best  pyrethrum  cannot  be  obtained  it 
would  be  better  to  use  some  other  insecticide. 
Resin  Lime  Mixture: 

Pulverized   resin,   5  pounds. 

Concentrated  lye,  1  pound. 

Fish  oil  or  any  cheap  oil  except  tallow,  1  pint. 

Water,  5  gallons. 

Place  oil,  resin  and  a  gallon  of  water  in  a  kettle  and  heat  until 
resin  is  softened;  add  lye  solution  made  as  for  hard  soap.  Stir  thor- 
oughly, add  remainder  of  water  and  boil  for  about  two  hours  until 
the  mixture  will  unite  with  cold  water  making  a  clear  amber  colored 
fluid.  Replace  the  water  which  has  boiled  away  by  adding  boiling 
water  to  make  the  5  gallons.  This  gives  a  stock  solution  which 
may  be  kept  until  needed.  In  using  it,  add  to  the  5  gallons,  80  gal- 
lons of  water,  15  gallons  of  thin  whitewash,  and  1  pound  of  Paris 
Green  or  its  equivalent.  Resin  Lime  mixture  is  used  in  spraying 
smooth  leaved  plants,  like  cabbage  and  cauliflower,  to  which  other 
mixtures  do  not  stick  well. 
Kerosene  Emulsion: 

Kerosene  (coal  oil),  2  gallons. 

Rain  water,    1  gallon. 

Soap,    %    pound. 

Dissolve   the  soap   in  water  by  boiling.     Take  from   the  fire  and 
while  hot,   turn  in   kerosene   and   churn   briskly  for  five  minutes.     It 
can  be  easily  churned  by  pumping.     Dilute  before  using  with  6  to  9 
parts  of  water.    For  scale  insects  and  all  sucking  insects.    - 
Lime: 

Dry  slaked  lime  is  often  used  in  combating  Insects  having  soft, 
sticky  bodies,  such  as  those  of  the  rose  slug,  cherry  slug  and  asparagus 
beetle. 
Tobacco  Dust: 

Tobacco  dust  may  be  obtained  from  large  manufacturers  at  a 
comparatively  small  cost.  In  addition  to  its  value  as  an  insecticide, 
it  has  the  advantage  of  acting  as  a  fertilizer.  It  is  useful  in  fight- 
ing striped  beetles  which  infest  cucumbers,  squashes  and  melons. 


APPENDIX.  311 

and  In  keeping  plant  lice  and  other  insects  from  the  garden  plants. 
It  is  also  used  against  root  lice,  particularly  the  woolly  aphis.  For 
this  purpose,  it  should  be  worked  into  the  ground  in  liberal  quantities. 
Tobacco  and  Soap: 

Tobacco  (waste  stems),  1  pound. 

Boiling  water,  4  gallons. 

Add  the  hot  water  to  the  tobacco  and  let  it  stand  until  cold. 
Strain  and  add  1  pound  of  whale  oil  soap  or  2  pounds  of  soft  soap  to 
each  50  gallons  of  infusion.  Used  for  plant  lice. 

WAXES    FOR   GRAFTING   AND    FOR    WOUNDS. 

The  following  recipes  for  waxes  are  taken  from  the  Horticultur- 
ist's Rule  Book: 

1.  Common  Resin  and  Beeswax  Waxes: 

a.  Reliable   wax. — Resin,    4    parts   by   weight;    beeswax,    2   parts; 
tallow,    1    part.    Melt    together    and    pour    into    a    pail    of    cold 
water.     Then    grease    the    hands    and   pull    the   wax    until   it  is 
nearly  white.    One  of  the  best  waxes,  either  for  indoor  or  out- 
door work. 

b.  Resin,  4  pounds;  beeswax,  1  pound;  tallow,  1  pound. 

c.  Resin,  6  pounds;  beeswax,  2  pounds;  linseed  oil,  1  pint. 

d.  6  pounds  resin,  1  pound  beeswax  and  1  pint  linseed  oil;  apply 
hot  with  a  brush,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick  over  all  the  jointa 

2.  Alcoholic  Waxes: 

Lefort's  Liquid  Grafting- Wax,  or  Alcoholic  Plastic.— Best  white 
resin,  1  pound;  beef  tallow,  1  ounce;  remove  from  the  fire  and 
add  8  ounces  of  alcohol.  Keep  in  closed  bottles  or  cans. 

3.  Waxed  String   and  other    Bandages: 

Waxed  String  for  Root-Grafting.— Into  a  kettle  of  melted  wax 
place  balls  of  No.  18  knitting-cotton.  Turn  the  balls  frequently, 
and  in  five  minutes  they  will  be  thoroughly  saturated,  when 
they  are  dried  and  put  away  for  future  use.  This  material  is 
strong  enough,  and  at  the  same  time  breaks  so  easily  as  not 
to  injure  the  hands.  Any  of  the  resin  and  beeswaxes  may  be 
used.  When  the  string  is  used  it  should  be  warm  enough  to 
stick  without  tying. 

Waxed  Cloth. — Old  calico  or  thin  muslin  is  rolled  on  a  stick 
and  placed  in  melted  wax.  When  saturated  it  is  allowed  to  cool 
by  being  unrolled  on  a  bench.  It  is  then  cut  in  strips  to  suit. 

Waxed  Paper  is  used  to  a  large  extent  in  some  nurseries  for 
covering  root  grafts.  It  is  made  by  painting  tough  paper  with 
hot  wax,  which  is  then  hung  up  to  dry. 


LISTS  OF  FRUITS  ESPECIALLY  ADAPTED  TO  CERTAIN 
TYPICAL  STATES. 

The  list  of  fruits  given  for  different  states  must  be  looked 
upon  as  only  directive.  The  states  given  are  selected  because 
they  represent  certain  typical  areas  adapted  to  fruit  growing. 
Lists  of  this  kind,  however,  are  often  misleading  to  the  beginner, 
and  the  inexperienced  should  be  cautious  how  they  follow  such 
lists  for  the  reason  that  soil  and  climate  may  change  in  some  sec- 
tions of  the  country  within  very  short  distances;  for  instance, 


312  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

parts  of  California  are  well  adapted  for  orange  raising,  and  with- 
in a  short  distance,  on  a  considerably  higher  elevation,  the 
country  may  be  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  apples.  Those 
who  are  intending  to  begin  planting  in  any  section  should  aim 
to  get  in  touch  with  the  Experiment  Stations  and  obtain  from 
them  a  list  of  fruits  especially  adapted  to  their  location. 

Varieties   of   Fruits   Recommended   for   Planting    In   Alabama. 

By   R.   S.   Mackintosh,   Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry,   Agri- 
cultural College,  Auburn,  Ala. 

North   half  of  state. 

Apples — Red  June,  Red  Astrachan,  Early  Harvest,  Family,  Wine- 
sap,  Yellow  Transparent,  Horse,  Yates,  Terry. 

Apples,  Crab — Not  planted  to  any  considerable  extent. 

Apricots — Not   planted. 

Blackberries — Dallas,    Early    Harvest. 

Cherries — Not   planted. 

Currants — Not    planted. 

Gooseberries — Not   planted. 

Grapes — Bunch:  Delaware,  Niagara,  Concord.  Muscatine  type:  Eden, 
Memory  and  Scuppernong. 

Peaches — Greensboro,  Carman,  Hiley,  Family  Favorite,  Belle,  El- 
berta,  Solway,  White  Heath. 

Pecans — Stuart,  Van  Deman,   Pabst. 

Pears— Kieffer. 

Plums — Red  June,   Burbank,   Abundance. 

Raspberries — Northern  part  of  state:  Gault,  Springfield,  Cuthbert, 
Cardinal. 

Strawberries — Lady    Thompson,    Klondike,    Hoffman,    Gandy,    Dunlap. 

Figs — Celestial,    Brown    Turkey. 

Oranges — Coast  region  only:     Satsuma. 

Japanese    Persimmons — Hachiya,    Okame,    Hyakume,    Tane-Nashl. 

Pomegranates — Sweet,    Acid. 

Varieties    Recommended    for    Planting    in    California. 

By     E.     J.     Wickson,     Dean     of     College     of    Agriculture,     Berkeley, 

California. 

There  is  practically  no  differentiation  as  yet  between  varie- 
ties for  amateurs  and  commercial  varieties.  The  leading  varieties 
used  commercially  are  selected  by  amateurs  so  far  as  their  char- 
acters agree  with  individual  desires.  The  following  list  of  varieties 
is  especially  recommended  for  the  coast  region  of  California: 
Apples — Newton,  Pippin,  Belle  Fleur,  Gravenstein,  R.  I.  Greening,  E. 

Spitzenberg,   Mo.   Pippin,  W.   Astracan,  Red  June. 

Grapes — Muscat,  Tokay,  Cornichon,  Thompson,  Emperor,  Malaga, 
Rose  of  Peru,  Zinfandel,  Sweet  Water,  Verdal,  Carignane,  Black 
Prince,  Alicante,  Sultina. 

Peaches — Muir,    Phillips,    Solway,    Lovell,    Early    Crawford,    Tuskena, 
Foster,  Elberta,   Late  Crawford,  Orange  Cling,   Susquehanna,  Nich- 
ols,   Sellers,    Lemon,    St.    Johns,    Henrietta,    Mary's    Choice,    Hale, 
Alexander,   Heath. 
Pears — Bartlett,    Winter  Nelis,    Seckel,    Easter,    Du   Cornice,   Doyenne 

D'Ete,    Clapp's   Favorite,    Glout   Morceau,   Barry,   Comet. 
Plums — Wickson,    Hungarian,    Kelsey,    Yellow    Egg,    Tragedy,    Wash- 
ington, Satsuma,  Burbank,  Jefferson,  Climax,  Grand  Duke,  Clyman. 


APPENDIX.  313 

Mammoth-    ^awton,    Kittatinny. 
Gooseberries — Berkeley,    Houghton. 
Quince— Apple,    Orange,    Paragon. 
Raspberries— Logan    berry.      Phenomenal    (Hybrids) 

Black — None  grown. 

Red— Cuthbert. 
StGandyrrieS~DallaS>      Arlzona>     Melinda,      Thompson,     Brandywine, 

Varieties    Recommended  for  Planting    In    Colorado. 

By    W.     Paddock,     Professor    of    Horticulture,     Agricultural    College 

Fort   Collins.    Colorado. 

For  Arkansas  Valley. 

Apples— Jonathan,    Gano,    Stayman,    Winesap,    Grimes,    Colo.    Orange, 

Wealthy,    Duchess  and  Haas  for  early. 
Apples,   Crab — Whitney. 

Blackberries— Early   Harvest,    Lawton,    Snyder. 
Cherries — Montmorency,    Morello,    Richmond. 
Currants — Cherry,    Fay,    Red   Cross. 
Gooseberries — Smith,    Downing,    Houghton. 
Grapes — Concord,  Niagara,  Moore's  Early. 

Peaches— Only  grown  by  laying  down  in   winter;    Crawford,   Elberta. 
Pears — Not   much   grown.     Bartlett,    Kieffer,    Seckel. 
Plums — Wyant,     Cheney,    Pfeffer,    Premium,    Moore's    Arctic    In    the 

north.     Lombard,  Bradshaw,  Italian  Prune  In  Arkansas  Valley. 
Quince — Not  grown. 
Raspberries — 

Black — Kansas. 

Red — Marlboro. 
Strawberries— Capt.    Jack,   Jocunda,   Bederwood. 

Varieties   Recommended  for  Planting  In   Iowa, 

By   S.    A.    Beach,    Professor   of   Horticulture,    Iowa   Agricultural    Ex- 
periment   Station,    Ames,    Iowa. 

Apples — In  selecting  stocks  upon  which  to  top-work  less  hardy  va- 
rieties, much  yet  needs  to  be  learned.  In  the  light  of  our  present 
knowledge  of  this  subject,  Hibernal  and  its  kin  appear  to  be  suit- 
able for  the  most  northern  parts  of  the  state,  while  in  southern 
Iowa,  Plumb  Cider  and  Haas  appear  to  be  especially  desirable 
for  this  purpose. 

Northern  Iowa — Yellow  Transparent,  Lowland  (Lowland  Raspberry), 
Charlamoff,  Oldenburg  (Duchess),  Patten  Greening,  Wealthy,  Ani- 
sim,  Longfield,  Hutchin's  Red,  Northwestern  (Greening),  Salome, 
Black  Annette,  Iowa  Blush,  Windsor,  Tolman  Sweet,  Allen  Choice, 
Stayman,  Delicious,  Ben  Davis  or  Black  Ben  Davis  or  Gano. 

Central  Iowa — Yellow  Transparent,  Lowland  (Lowland  Raspberry), 
Charlamoff,  Oldenburg  (Duchess),  Wealthy,  Anisim,  Longfield,  Fall 
Orange.  Ramsdell  Sweet,  Hutchins  Red.  Grimes  Golden,  Jonathan, 
Roman  Stem,  Northwestern  (Greening),  Salome,  Black  Annette, 
Iowa  Blush,  Windsor,  Tolman  Sweet,  Allen  Choice,  Stayman,  Rails 
Genet,  Delicious,  Nelson  Sweet,  Winesap,  York  Imperial,  Ben  Davis 
or  Black  Ben  Davis  or  Gano. 

Southern  Iowa — Yellow  Transparent,  Lowland  (Lowland  Raspberry), 
Red  June,  Oldenburg,  (Duchess),  Dyer,  Wealthy,  Benoni,  Fall  Or- 
ange, Ramsdell  Sweet,  Hutchins  Red,  Grimes  Golden,  Jonathan, 
Roman  Stem,  Iowa  Blush,  Windsor,  Allen  Choice,  Stayman,  Rails 
Genet,  Delicious,  Nelson  Sweet,  Winesap,  York  Imperial,  Ben 
Davis  or  Black  Ben  Davis  or  Gano. 


314  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Pears — On  account  of  the  prevalence  and  great  destructiveness  of 
pear  blight  in  Iowa,  pear  culture  is  precarious  in  all  parts  of  the 
state.  The  varieties  named  below  have  shown  a  good  degree  of 
hardiness  and  resistance  to  blight  in  some  localities  in  Iowa: 
Fluke,  Bloodgood,  Warner,  Seckel,  Flemish  Beauty,  Bezi  de  la 
Motte,  Longworth,  Kieffer.  Anjou. 

Peaches— Because  of  their  lack  of  hardiness  peaches  are  seldom 
fruited  north  of  central  Iowa  and  only  the  hardier  varieties  can 
be  recommended  for  planting  in  any  portion  of  the  state.  The 
varieties  named  below  are  among  the  best  of  those  which  have 
been  fruited  successfully  in  different  portions  of  central  and  south- 
ern Iowa:  Sneed,  Greensboro,  Champion,  Lone  Tree,  Russell,  Hill 
Chili,  Crosby. 

Plums — Northern  Iowa — Forest  Garden,  Ocheeda,  De  Soto,  Cheney, 
Wolf,  Wyant,  Hawkeye,  Stoddard,  Brittlewood  (?),  Hammer  (?), 
Miner. 

Central  Iowa — Forest  Garden,  Ocheeda  (?),  De  Soto,  Wolf,  Wyant, 
Hawkeye,   Stoddard,    Brittlewood,   Hammer.   Miner. 

Southern  Iowa — Forest  Garden.  Ocheeda  (?),  De  Soto,  Wolf,  Wyant, 
Hawkeye,    Stoddard,   Brittlewood,   Hammer,    Miner. 

Varieties  Recommended  for  Planting  In  Michigan. 

By  Prof.   L.   R.   Taft,  East  Lansing,   Mich.,   Superintendent  of  Farm- 
ers'  Institute. 

Apples— Red  Astrachan,  Duchess,  Wealthy,  Baldwin,  Maiden  Blush, 
Jonathan,  Hubbardston,  Grimes,  Wagener,  Red  Canada,  Golden 
Russet. 

Apples,    Crab — Transcendent,   Hyslop,    Martha,    Whitney. 

Blackberries — King,    Wilson,    Snyder,    Eldorado,    Taylor. 

Cherries — Early  Richmond,  Montmorency,  English  Morello,  Gov. 
Wood,  Black  Tartarian. 

Currants — Victoria,  Red  Dutch,  London,  White  Dutch,   Perfection. 

Gooseberries — Downing,   Smith  Improved,    Keepsake,   Industry. 

Grapes — Moore,  Worden,  Concord,  Delaware,  Niagara,  Diamond, 
Brighton. 

Peaches — Triumph,  Dewey,  Engle,  Elberta,  Kalamazoo,  or  New  Pro- 
lific. 

Pears — Clapps,    Bartlett,    Howell,    Seckel,    Anjou,    Kieffer,    Lawrence. 

Plums — Abundance,  Burbank,  Bradshaw,  Lombard,  Grand  Duke,  Mon- 
arch. 

Quince — Orange,  Rea  and  Champion. 

Raspberries— 

Black — Kansas,   Gregg,   Cumberland. 
Red — Miller,   Marlboro,   Eaton,    Cuthbert. 

Strawberries — Excelsior,  Haverland,  Clyde,  Sample,  Dunlap,  Aroma, 
Pride  of  Michigan,  Dornan,  Brandywine. 

Varieties   of   Fruits    Recommended   for    Planting    In    Minnesota. 
By    Minnesota    State    Horticultural    Society. 

Apples— First  degree  of  hardiness— Duchess,  Hibernal,  Charlamoff, 
Patten's  Greening,  Okabena.  Second  degree  of  hardiness — Wealthy, 
Tetofsky,  Malinda,  Peerless,  Anisim.  Most  profitable  for  commer- 
cial planting  in  Minnesota — Wealthy,  Duchess,  Patten's  Greening, 
Okabena,  Anisim.  Varieties  for  trial — Salome,  Eastman,  Yellow 
Sweet,  Brett,  Milwaukee,  University,  Lowland  Raspberry,  Iowa 
Beauty,  Jewell's  Winter,  Gilbert.  Valuable  in  some  locations — 
Wolf  River,  McMahon,  Yellow  Transparent,  Longfield,  Northwest- 
ern Greening. 

Crabs  and  Hybrids — For  general  cultivation — Florence,  Whitney,  Ear- 
ly Strawberry,  Minnesota,  Sweet  Russet,  Virginia,  Transcendent. 
Varieties  for  trial— Lyman's  Prolific,  Faribault,  Shields. 


APPENDIX.  315 

Plums — For    general    cultivation — DeSoto,    Surprise,    Forest    Garden, 

Wolf    (Freestone),    Wyant,    Stoddard.      Most   promising   for   trial — 

New  Ulm,  Brittlewood,  Compass  Cherry,  Terry. 
Grapes— First   degree   of  hardiness— Beta,   Janesville.      Second   degree 

of    hardiness — Moore's    Early,    Brighton,    Delaware,    Worden,    Aga- 

wam,    Concord,   Moore's  Diamond. 

Raspberries — Red  Varieties— King,   Turner,  Marlboro,  Miller,  Brandy- 
wine,     Loudon.       Black     and     purple     varieties — Palmer,     Nemaha, 

Gregg,  Older,  Columbian,  Kansas. 
Blackberries — Ancient  Britain   and   Snyder. 
Currants — Red  Dutch,  White  Grape,   Victoria,   Long  Bunch,   Holland, 

North  Star,  Pomona,  Red  Cross,  Perfection,  London  Market. 
Gooseberries — Houghton,  Downing,   Champion.  Pearl. 
Strawberries — Perfect  varieties— Bederwood,  Enhance,  Lovett,  Splendid, 

Glen    Mary,    Clyde,    Senator   Dunlap.    Imperfect   varieties — Crescent, 

Warfield,  Haverland. 
Native    Fruits — Valuable    for    trial — Dwarf    Juneberry,    Sand    Cherry, 

Buffaloberry,   High   Bush   Cranberry. 

Varieties   recommended   for  Planting   in   Missouri. 
By   J.    C.   Whitten,   Professor  of  Horticulture,    Columbia,    Mo. 

Apples — Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Jonathan,  Grimes,  York,  Winesap,  Ingram, 

Rome   Beauty,    Maiden's   Blush,   Wealthy,    Early  Harvest. 
Apples,    Crab — Florence,   Whitney,  Hyslop. 
Apricots — Alexander    and    Budd    (Even    these    do    not    thrive,    and    I 

know  of  none  that  are  well  adapted). 
Blackberries — Snyder,    Taylor,    Lawton,    Early    Harvest. 
Cherries — Early    Richmond,    English    Morello,    Montmorency. 
Currants — Red  Dutch,   White   Dutch,    Red    Cherry. 
Gooseberries — Downing,    Smith,    Houghton. 
Grapes — Moore's    Early,    Worden,    Concord,    Woodruff    Red,    Wyoming 

Red.     For  wine — Cynthiana,  Elvira. 
Peaches — Champion,     Carman,     Family     Favorite,     Elberta,     Crosby, 

Salway. 

Pears— Kieffer,  Garber,  Dwarf  Duchess,  Anjou,  Keull. 
Plums — Wild   Goose,    Wayland,    Gold,   Dawson,    Chabot,   Burbank. 
Quince — Missouri  Mammoth,  Orange. 
Raspberries— 

Black — Evans,   Kansas,   Hopkins,   Gregg. 

Red — Turner,  Cardinal,  Loudon. 
Strawberries — Aroma,   Excelsior,   Warfield,   Bubach,  Haverland,  Gandy. 

Varieties   Recommended  for   New  York. 

By    S.    D.    Willard,    Geneva,    N.     Y.,     leading    nurseryman    and    fruit 
grower. 

Apples — Garden    Royal,    Gravenstein,    Oldenburg,    Mclntosh,    Esopus, 
Spitzenburg,    Northern    Spy,    Boiken. 

Apricots — Acme,   Montgamet. 

Blackberries — Early   Bagnard,   Eldorado. 

Cherries — Sour:  Richmond,   Morello,  Montmorency. 
Sweet:  Rockport,  Windsor,  Schmidt. 

Currants — White  Imperial,   Wilder. 

Gooseberries — Downing,    Columbus. 

pears — Bartlett,    Anjou,    Lawrence,    Washington. 

Plums — Reine  Claude,   Burbank,  German   Prune.     The  varieties  espe- 
cially valuable  for  home  use   are  very  few. 

Raspberries- 
Black— Diamond.    Gregg,    Cumberland. 
Red — Cuthbert,  Loudon,  Golden  Queen. 


316  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

List  of   Fruits   for    Northern    New    England. 

By   W.   M.   Munson,    Professor  of  Horticulture,   Agricultural   College, 
Orono,  Me. 

Apples — Oldenburg,  Gravenstein,  Baldwin,  Spy,  Hubbardston,  Stark, 
Tolman,  Fameuse.  For  home  use,  add — Astrachan,  Williams,  Mother, 
Paradise,  Winter  Sweet,  Mackintosh.  For  extreme  northern  parts 
of  Maine  and  Vermont,  except  Grand  Isle  County,  hardier  sorts 
are  required;  for  example — Wealthy,  Dudley,  Oldenburg,  Alexander, 
Rolfe,  Arctic  and  some  local  varieties,  like  Stowe  and  Hayforu. 

Apples,   Crab — Hyslop,  Martha,   Transcendent. 

Blackberries — Agawam  and  Snyder. 

Cherries — Richmond,    Windsor,    English   Morello. 

Currants — Fay,   Wilder,    White  Imperial. 

Grape — Moore's  Early,  Campbell's  Early,  Green  Mountain,  Worden, 
and  possibly,  King. 

Gooseberries — Downing. 

Peaches — Not    commercially    grown. 

Pears — Angouleme,  Anjou,  Bartlett,  Bosc,  Clapp,  Diel,  Lawrence, 
Sheldon,  Vermont  Beauty. 

Plum — Bavay,  Burbank,  Bradshaw,  Grand  Duke,  Imperial,  Gage, 
Moore's  Arctic. 

Quince — Not  commercially  grown. 

Raspberries — 

Black — Cumberland,   Gregg. 
Red — Cuthbert,   Loudon. 
Purple — Shaffer. 

Strawberries — Dornan,  Dunlap,   Glen  Mary,  Warfleld. 

List   of  Fruits    Recommended   for    New    Jersey. 

By    M.    A.    Blake,    Horticulturist,    Experiment    Station,    New    Bruns- 
wick, N.  J. 

Apples — I  would  suggest  Early  Harvest,  Early  Ripe,  Red  Astrachan, 
William's,  Starr,  Summer  Rambo,  Wealthy,  Maiden's  Blush,  Fall 
Pippin,  Jonathan,  Stayman's  Winesap,  Winesap,  York  Imperial  and 
Rome  Beauty.  These  varieties  are  recommended  for  south  Jersey. 
North  Jersey  has  practically  the  same  conditions  for  fruit  growing 
as  New  York  State,  and  such  varieties  as  Northern  Spy,  R.  I. 
Greening,  Baldwin  and  Mackintosh  can  be  included  in  the  list.  All 
varieties  that  are  adapted  to  New  York  state  can  be  grown  in 
northern  Jersey.  Such  varieties  as  Baldwin  and  R.  I.  Greening  are 
practically  fall  apples  in  southern  Jersey. 

Crab   Apples — Hyslop   and    Transcendent. 

Apricots — Harris   Hardy   and   Moorpark. 

Blackberries— Ward. 

Cherries — 

Sweet — Governor  Wood,  Yellow  Spanish,   Black  Tartarian,  Windsor. 
Sour — Early  Richmond  and  May  Duke. 

Currants — Wilder,  Fay  and  Cherry. 

Gooseberries — Downing,   Columbus  and  Red  Jacket. 

Grapes — Commercial  varieties  for  south  Jersey — Concord  and  Ives. 
Some  grapes  are  sold  from  south  Jersey  for  eating  purposes,  but 
the  larger  quantity  is  now  made  into  grape  juice.  The  two  va- 
rieties named  are  the  ones  almost  exclusively  grown.  Green  Moun- 
tain, Niagara,  Brighton,  Worden,  Moore's  Diamond,  Delaware  and 
others  can  be  grown  for  dessert  and  home  use,  however. 

Peaches — Greensboro,  Hiley,  Carman,  Waddell,  Mountain  Rose,  Ear- 
ly Crawford,  Niagara,  Reeve's  Favorite,  Elberta,  Late  Crawford, 
Belle  of  Georgia,  Old  Mixon,  Steven's  Rareripe,  Salway. 


APPENDIX.  317 

Pears— Kieffer  and  La  Conte  for  market.  Bartlett.  Clalrgeau  and 
such  varieties  can  be  recommended  for  the  home  orchard,  but  are 
likely  to  be  severely  attacked  by  blight.  Clapp's  Favorite  is  es- 
pecially susceptible. 

Plums  (European) — Lombard  and  Fellenburg.     (Japanese) — Red  June. 
Quinces — Champion   and  Orange. 
Raspberries — 

Black — Cumberland   and   Kansas. 
Red — Herbert  and  Cuthbert. 
Hybrids — Columbian   and   Haymaker. 

Strawberries— Gandy,  Tennessee  Prolific,  Nettie,  Glen  Mary,  William 
Belt,  Success. 

The  conditions  for  fruit  growing  in  northern  Jersey  are  about 
the  same  as  those  of  New  York  and  New  England.  Some  of  the 
soils  there  are  well  adapted  to  apples.  Some  of  the  high  quality 
varieties  of  pears  could  be  recommended  for  this  section  in  addition 
to  those  given.  Pear  blight  is  very  severe  in  south  Jersey,  however, 
and  Kieffer  and  La  Conte  are  becoming  the  varieties  most  grown. 
Southern  New  Jersey  has  much  the  same  conditions  for  fruit  grow- 
ing as  Delaware  and  parts  of  Maryland. 

Varieties    Recommended    for    Planting    in    North    Carolina. 
By   W.   N.   Hutt,    Horticulturist,   Agricultural    College,   West   Raleigh, 

N.  C. 
Apples — In   Mountains — Red    June,    York,    Slayman,    Winesap,    Grimes 

and   Bonum.      In   Cotton    Belt — Horses,    Winesap,    Stayman,    Shock- 
ley,   Ben  Davis. 
Apricots — None   grown. 

Blackberries— Dewberries  in  sandy  region  only  Lucretia. 
Cherries — Little  grown.     Sour  type  grown  in  mountains. 
Currants — In  Mountains,   Red  Dutch   and  Fay. 
Gooseberries — Downing  and  Houghton. 
Grapes — Niagara,  Concord  and  Delaware.     Scuppernong  and  James  on 

coast. 

Peaches — Greensboro,  Carman,  Salway. 
Pears — Kieffer,  La  Conte,  Seckel,  Early  Harvest. 
Plums — Abundance,   Red  June,    Burbank,    Wild  Goose.. 
Quince — In  mountains,  Meech. 
Raspberries — 

Black— In  mountains — Gregg. 

Red— In   mountains — Loudon,   Cuthbert  and  Miller. 
Strawberries — Lady   Thompson,   Heflin,    Gandy,    Bubach,    Clenoa. 
Figs — In  coast  and  lower  Piedmont — Brown  Turkey,  Celestial. 
Pecans— In    coast  and    lower   Piedmont— Stewart,    Van   Deman,    Frot- 

schen,   Schley. 
Mulberries — White   English,    Black   English,    New  American. 

Varieties   Recommended  for  Planting   in  Ohio. 
By  W.    J.    Green,    Professor   of  Horticulture  of  Experiment   Station, 

Wooster,  O. 
Apples — Yellow     Transparent,     Oldenburg,     Sweet     Bough,     Maiden's 

Blush.     Grimes    Golden,     Jonathan,     Hubbardston,     York    Imperial, 

Rome  Beauty,  Northern  Spy. 
Apples,    Crab— Transcendent. 

Blackberries— Early   Harvest,   E.    King,   Eldorado,    Snyder 
Cherries — Dydhouse,   Early  Richmond,   Montmorency,  English  Moreno. 
Currants— Victoria,  Wilder,   White  Dutch. 
Gooseberries— Downing,   Pearl,    Portage,   Josselyn. 
Grapes— Worden,   Green  Mountain.   Niagara,    Brighton. 
Peaches — Mountain  Rose,  Greensboro,  Champion,  Elberta,  SmocK. 
Pears — Wilder,   Bartlett,   Angouleme,   Seckel. 


318  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING. 

Plums— Bradshaw,  Field,   Reine  Claude,  Lombard,  Grand  Duke. 
Quince — Orange. 
Raspberries — 

Black— Cumberland,    Hunger,    Conrath. 

Red — Cuthbert,    King,    Loudon. 
Strawberries— Fairfleld,  Dunlap,  Haverland,  Bubach,  Latest. 

Varieties  Recommended  for  Planting   in  Oregon. 

By  C.  J.  Lewis,  Professor  of  General  Horticulture,   Agricultural   Col- 
lege, Corvallis,  Ore. 
Apples— E.    Spitzenburg,    Yellow    Newtown,    Jonathan,    Baldwin,    Ben 

Davis,    Gano,    Yellow  Imperial,    Gravenstein. 
Apples,   Crab— Martha,  Transcendent. 
Apricots — Blenheim,  Moore  Park,  Royal. 
Blackberries — Lawton,  Kittatinny. 

Cherries — Royal  Anne,   Lambert,    Bing,   Black  Republican. 
Currants — Fay,   Cherry,   White   Grape. 
Gooseberries — Champion,   Downing,   Industry. 
Grapes — Concord,   Niagara,   Tokay,  Malaga,   Muscat. 
Peaches — Alexander,    Crawfords,   Foster,   Muir,   Salway,   Hale's  Early, 

L.   Cliny. 

pears — Bartlett,  Anjou,  Bosc,  Howell,  W.  Nelis,  Cornice,  E.  Beurre. 
Plums— Italian,   Petite. 

Quince — Champion,  Apple  or  Orange,  Rea's  Mammoth. 
Raspberries — 

Black — Gregg,    Cumberland,    Kansas,   Mammoth   Cluster. 

Red — Cuthbert,   Marlboro,  Loudon. 
Strawberries — Clark's    Seedling,    Niagara,     Warfield,     Clyde,    Hopkins. 

Oregon    Everbearing,    Excelsior,  Dunlap. 

List  of  Fruits  Recommended  for  the  State  of  Washington  and  Adjoin- 
ing Fruit  Districts;  Revised  and  Corrected  by  Professor 
W.  S.  Thornber.  Pullman,  Wash. 

Varieties    recommended    for    western     Montana,     Idaho,     eastern 
Washington,    eastern   Oregon,    Nevada,   eastern    California   and   adja- 
cent parts  of  British  Columbia: 
Apples — 

Early — Bough  (sweet),  Early  Harvest,  Red  Astrachan,  Jefferis, 
Oldenburg,  Yellow  Transparent,  Maiden  Blush,  Gravenstein. 

Midseason — Fall  Pippin,  Fameuse,  Mclntosh  Red,  Rambo,  Wealthy, 
Tompkins  King,  Bailey. 

Late — Grimes  Golden,  Arkansas  Black,  Blue  Pearmain,  Esopus  Spitz- 
enberg,  Jonathan,  Monmouth,  Northern  Spy,  Wagener,  White  Winter 
Pearmain.  Rome  Beauty,  Staymen  Winesap,  Yellow  Bellflower,  Wine- 
sap. 

Crab   Apples— Hyslop,    Transcendent,    Grant. 
Pears — 

Early — Bartlett,   Tyson. 

Midseason — Beurre   d' Anjou,    Flemish,    Seckel,    Howell. 

Late — Sheldon,  Easter  Beurre,   Winter  Nelis. 
Plums — 

Early — Columbia,   Bradshaw. 

Midseason — Agen  or  French,   Peach   Golden   Drop,   Imperial   Gage. 

Late — Shropshire,   Damson,   Italian   Prune. 
Peaches — 

Early — Alexander,    Early    York,    Greensboro,   Mountain    Rose. 

Midseason — Early    Crawford,    Foster,    Lemon    Cling,    Muir,    Susque- 
hanna. 
Sweet  Cherries— Napoleon   (Royal  Anne),  Lambert,  Black  Republican, 

Windsor. 
Sour  Cherries — Late  Duke,  May  Duke,  Morello,  Olivet. 


APPENDIX.  819 

Moorpark,   Royal,   Gibb. 

Early— Moore,    Brighton,   Winchell. 
Midseason— Worden,    Delaware,    Concord 

ln^raN£5S£  'only.'  and  Alexaildria  °*  Muscat  and  Black  Hamburg 
Currants—  Cherry,  Red  Dutch,  White  Grape 
St°raSwblrriel-IndUStry'  HouSnton.  Pale  Red. 
Early— Dubach,  Crescent,  Excelsior,  Warfleld 
Midseason— Hood  River,   Parker  Earle,   Sharpless. 
Late — Gandy. 

Red   Raspberries— Marlboro,   Cuthbert,   Shaffer. 
Black  Raspberries— Gregg,   Kansas,  Palmer. 
Blackberries-Ancient    Britton   and   Kittatinny. 
Quinces— Mech   and  Missouri. 
Dewberries— Lucretia. 

The  following  varieties  are  recommended  for  the  Coast  region  of 
Columbia  gm'  western  Washington,  and  adjacent  parts  of  British 
Apples— ' 

Early— Early  Harvest,   Yellow  Transparent,  Red  Astrachan,  Benoni. 
Midseason— Gravenstein,  Fall  Pippin,   Fameuse,   Mclntosh.  Rambo. 
Late— Baldwin,    Belmont,    Esopus    Spitzenberg,    Jonathan,    Northern 
Spy.  Talman  Sweet,  Grimes  Golden,  Yellow  Bellflower. 
Crab    Apples — Hyslop    and    Transcendent,    Whitney. 
Pears- 
Early — White  Doyenne.   Clapp,  Bartlett,   Tyson. 

Midseason— Beurre    D'Anjou,    Bosc,    Louise,    Seckel,    Gray    Doyenne 
and  Sheldon. 

Late— Easter    Beurre,    Cornice,    Winter    Nelis,    Dana,    Hovey    and 
Lawrence. 
Plums — 

Early — Columbia,   Jefferson. 

Midseason— De    Soto,    French,    Golden   Drop,    Peach    Golden    Prune, 
Sugar,  Imperial  Gage. 

Late — Shropshire,  Damson,  Italian. 
Peaches — 

Early — Alexander,   Charlotte,  Mountain  Rose,  Triumph,  Hale. 
Midseason — Early   Crawford,    Foster,   Muir,   Oldmixon    Free. 
Late — Late  Crawford,   Heath. 
Sweet   Cherries— Bing,   Republican,   Royal  Anne,    Lewelling,    Lambert, 

Tartarian. 

Sour  Cherries — May  Duke,  Richmond,   Morello,  Olivet. 
Apricots — Moorpark,  Royal,  Gibb. 

Varieties  Recommended  for  Planting  In  Saskatchewan. 
By  Angus  Mackay,  Superintendent  Experimental  Farm,  Indian  Head, 

Saskatchewan. 

Apples,  Crab — Siberian  Crab  (P.  baccata)  and  crosses  on  this  variety. 
Cherries— Prunus  tomentosa. 
Currants — 

Red — Fay's  Prolific,  Victoria,  Red  Dutch. 

White — White  Grape,  White  Imperial. 

Black— Lee's  Prolific,  Black  Naples. 
Gooseberries — Smith's  Improved,   Houghton. 
Plums— Manitoba  Native,  Aitken,  Weaver. 
Raspberries — 

Black— Older  Black  and  Hilborn  Black. 

Red — Dr.   Reider,  Marboro,    Turner,   Herbert. 

Yellow— Caroline. 
Strawberries— South  Dakota  No.   1   (Seedling  of  Jessie  fertilized  with 

pollen  from  Manitoba  Wild  Strawberry). 


320  POPULAR  FRUIT  GKOWING. 

RULES  FOR  NAMING  FRUITS. 

In  the  naming  and  describing  or*  new  sorts,  there  is  chance  for 
much  confusion  by  duplication  of  names  and  in  other  ways.  In  order 
to  simplify  this  matter,  rules  have  been  adopted  by  the  American 
Pomological  Society  as  fol^ws: 

Rule  I.  No  two  varieties  of  the  same  kind  of  fruit  shall  bear 
the  same  name.  The  name  first  published  for  a  variety  shall  be  the 
accepted  and  recognized  name,  except  in  cases  where  it  has  been  ap- 
plied in  violation  of  this  code. 

(a)  The  term   "kind"  as  herein   used  shall   be  understood  to  ap- 
ply to   those  general    classes   of  fruits  that   are   grouped   together  in 
common  usage  without  regard  to  their  exact  botanical  relationship;  as, 
apple,  cherry,  grape,  peach,  plum,  raspberry,  etc. 

(b)  The    paramount    right    of    the    originator,    discoverer    or    in- 
troducer of  a  new  variety  to  name  it,  within  the  limitations  of  this 
code,  is  recognized  and  emphasized. 

(c)  Where  a  variety  name,  through  long  usage,  has  become  thor- 
oughly   established    in    American    Pomological    literature    for    two    or 
more  varieties,   it   should  not  be  displaced  nor  radically  modified  for 
either  sort,  except  in  cases  where  a  well-known  synonym  can  be  ad- 
vanced to  the  position  of  leading  name.     The  several  varieties  bear- 
ing identical  names  should  be  distinguished  by  adding  the  name  of  the 
author  who  first   described  each  sort,  or  by   adding  some  other  suit- 
able distinguishing  term  that  will  insure  their  identity   in  catalogues 
or  discussions. 

(d)  Existing   American    names    of   varieties,    which    conflict    with 
earlier  published   foreign  names  of  the  same,  or  other  varieties,   but 
which  have  become  thoroughly  established  through   long  usage,   shall 
not  be  displaced. 

Rule  II.  The  name  of  a  variety  of  fruit  shall  consist  of  a  single 
word. 

(a)  No  variety   shall  be  named   unless  distinctly   superior  to   ex- 
isting   varieties    in    some    important    characteristic    nor    until    it    has 
been  determined  to  perpetuate  it  by  bud  propagation. 

(b)  In  selecting  names  for  varieties,   the  following  points  should 
be  emphasized:     distinctiveness,  simplicity,  ease  of  pronunciation,  and 
spelling,  indication  of  origin  or  parentage. 

(c)  The    spelling   and    pronunciation    of  a    varietal    name    derived 
from   a   personal   or   geographical    name    should   be    governed   by   the 
rules  that   control   the  spelling  and  pronunciation  of  the  name  from 
which  it  was  derived. 

(d)  A  variety  imported  from  a  foreign  country   should  retain  its 
foreign   name   subject   only   to    such    modification    as   is   necessary   to 
conform  to  this  code  or  to  render  it  intelligible  in  English. 

(e)  The  name  of  a  person  should  not  be  applied  to  a  variety  dur- 
ing his  life  without  his  expressed  consent.     The  name  of  a  deceased 
horticulturist  should  not  be  so  applied  except  through  formal   action 
by    so/ne    competent   horticultural   body,    preferably    that    with    which 
he  was  most  closely  connected. 

(f)  The  use  of  such  general  terms    as     seedling,    hybrid,    pippin, 
pearmain,  beurre.  rare-ripe,  damson,  etc.,  is  not  admissible. 

(g)  The  use  of  a  possessive  noun  as  a  name  is  not  admissible, 
(h)  The  use   of  a   number,    either  singly  or  attached  to  a  word, 

should  be  considered  only  as  temporary  expedient  while  the  variety 
is  undergoing  preliminary  test. 

(i)  In  applying  the  various  provisions  of  this  rule  to  an  existing 
varietal  name  that  has,  through  long  usage,  become  firmly  imbedded 
in  American  Pomological  literature,  no  change  shall  be  made,  which 
will  involve  loss  of  identity. 

Rule  III.  In  the  full  and  formal   citation  of  a  variety  name,   the 
name  of  the  author  who  first  published  it  shall  be  given. 
Publication. 

Rule  IV.  Publication  consists  (1)  in  the  distribution  of  a  printed 
description  of  the  variety  named,  giving  the  distinguishing  charac- 


APPENDIX. 


321 


ters  of  fruit,  tree,  etc.,  or  (2)  in  the  publication  of  a  new  name  for 
a  variety  that  is  properly  described  elsewhere;  such  publication  to 
be  made  in  any  book,  bulletin,  report,  trade  catalogue  or  periodical, 
providing  the  issue  bears  the  dat'e  of  its  publication  and  is  generally 
distributed  among  nurserymen,  fruit  growers  and  horticulturists;  or 
(3)  in  certain  cases,  the  general  recognition  of  a  name  for  a  prop- 
agated variety  in  a  community  for  a  number  of  years  shall  consti- 
tute publication  of  that  name. 

(a)  In  determining  the  name  of  a  variety  to  which  two  or  more 
names  have  been  given  in  the  same  publication,  that  which  stands 
first  shall  have  precedence. 

Revision. 

Rule  V.  No  properly  published  variety  name  shall  be  changed 
for  any  reason,  except  conflict  with  this  code,  nor  shall  another  va- 
riety be  substituted  for  that  originally  described  thereunder. 

Usual  Distances  Apart  for  Planting  Fruits. 

Apples     : 25  to  40  feet  each  way 

Apples,     Dwarf     10  to  15     " 

Pears     20  to  30     " 

Pears,    Dwarf    10  to  15 

Plums     16  to  20 

Peaches     16  to  20 

Cherries     16  to  25 

Apricots    16  to  20 

Nectarines     1(J  to  20 

Quinces    8  to  14 

Mulberries     25  to  30 

Japanese  Persimmons    20  to  25 

Pecans     35  to  40 

Grapes     8  to  12 

Currants     4    x    5 

Gooseberries     b   x    5 

Raspberries,     Black     3    x    7 

Raspberries,     Red     3    x     7 

Blackberries   4x7   to  6x8  feet 

Cranberries  1  or  2  feet  apart  each  way 

Strawberries   1  to  3x3  to  4  feet 

Oranges  and  Lemons 25  to  30  feet  each  way 

Number  of    Plants    Required   to   Set    an    Acre    of   Ground   at    Given 
Distances. 


1  ft. 
1  ft. 
1  ft. 
1ft. 
2  ft. 
2  ft. 
2  ft. 
2ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 
4  ft. 
4ft. 
4  ft. 
4  ft. 
5  ft. 
5  ft. 
12  ft. 
12  ft. 
12  ft. 

2  ft  

4  ft 

21,780 
10,890 
7,260 
6,223 
10,890 
7,260 
.   5,445 
3,630 
4,840 
2,420 
2,722 
2,178 
1,185 
1,361 
1,452 
1,089 
302 
242 
201 

6  ft  

7  ft 

2  ft  

3  ft 

4  ft  
6  ft  
3  ft 

6  ft  
4  ft 

5ft  
6  ft 

8ft  
6  ft 

8  ft 

12  ft  
15  ft  
18  ft  

12  ft. 

X 

20ft  

181 

12  ft. 

x 

24  ft  

..151 

12  ft. 

X 

30  ft  *.. 

121 

12  ft. 

X 

36  ft  

..   86 

15  ft. 

X 

15  ft  

,  .193 

15  ft. 

X 

20  ft  

..145 

15  ft. 

X 

24  ft  

121 

18  ft. 

X 

20  ft  

..121 

18  ft. 

X 

24  ft  

..100 

20  ft. 

X 

20  ft  

108 

20  ft. 

z 

24  ft  

..    90 

20  ft. 

X 

30  ft  

,   72 

20  ft. 

X 

42  ft  

..  51 

30  ft. 

X 

30  ft  

,   48 

30  ft. 

X 

..  40 

30  ft. 

X 

42  tt.  '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

..    34 

40  ft. 

X 

40  ft  

..   27 

40  ft. 

X 

50  ft  

..   21 

50  ft. 

x 

50  ft  

..   17 

100  ft. 

X 

100  ft  

..     4 

322  POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING 

HORTICULTURAL    PUBLICATIONS. 

The  following  list  of  books,  papers  and  bulletins  on  fruit 
growing  is  appended  as  suggestive  material  for  supplementary 
reading  for  the  student  and  fruit  growei. 

BOOKS. 

William   Briggs,   Toronto,   Ont. 

The    Canadian   Apple   Growers'    Guide. 
Dewey  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

California  Fruits  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  E.   J.  Wickson. 
Doubleday,  Fage  &  Co.,   Garden  City,  N.  Y. 

How  to  Make  a  Fruit  Garden,  S.  W.  Fletcher. 

Orchard  and  Fruit  Garden,  E.  P.  Powell. 
The   Fruit  Grower,   St.   Joseph,   Mo. 

The  Fruit  Grower's   Guide  Book,   E.   H.   Favor. 
Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants,  B.  M.  Duggar. 
Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York,   N.   Y. 

The  American  Apple  Orchard,  F.  A.  Waugh. 

The  American  Fruit  Culturist,  J.  J.  Thomas. 

Foundations  of  American  Grape  Culture,  T.  V.  Munson. 

Fruit  Harvesting,  Storing  and  Marketing,   F.  A.  Waugh. 

Grape  Growing  and  Wine  Making,  Geo.  Husmann. 

Plums  and  Plum  Culture,  F.  A.  Waugh. 

Systematic  Pomology,  F.  A.  Waugh. 
J.  B.  L,ippincott  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits,  Wm.  Saunders. 
Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  or  Chicago. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture,   edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Bush  Fruits,  F.  W.   Card. 

Farm  and  Garden  Rule  Book,  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Fruit  Growing  in  the  Arid  Regions,  Paddock  and  Whipple. 

The  Nursery  Book,  L.  H.  Bailey. 

The  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,  L.  H.  Bailey. 

The  Pruning  Book,  L.  H.   Bailey. 

The  Spraying  of  Plants,  E.   G.   Lodeman. 
W.  T.  Seibels,  242  N.  Clark  St.,  Chicago,  111. 

Produce  Markets  and  Marketing. 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Ame^can  Horticultural  Manual,  two  vols.,  Budd  and  Hansen. 

PERIODICALS. 

The  following  periodicals  are  devoted  wholly  or  in  part  to  horti- 
cultural subjects: 

Better  Fruit,  Hood  River,  Ore. 
The  Country  Gentleman,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  Chicago  Packer,  Chicago,  111. 

The  Fruit  Belt,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

The  Fruit  Grower,   St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

The  Fruit  Magazine,  Vancouver,  B.  C. 

The  Fruitman  and  Gardener,  Mt.  Vernon,  Iowa. 

The  Fruit  Trade  Journal,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

The  Market  Growers'  Journal,  Louisville,  Ky. 

The  National  Horticulturist,  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa. 

The  Rural  New  Yorker,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

The  various  local  farm  papers  usually  maintain  horticultural  col- 
umns or  publish  more  or  less  matter  relating  to  fruit  growing. 


HORTICULTURAL,  PUBLICATIONS.  323 

The  reports  of  the  state  horticultural  societies  contain  many  valu- 
able suggestions,  and  as  they  are  based  very  largely  on  the  actual 
experience  of  local  growers,  they  are  usually  very  practical  and  useful. 

BULLETINS. 

The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  has  published  a  number  of 
bulletins  on  fruit  growing  which  may  be  obtained  free  of  charge  by 
writing  to  the  Division  of  Publications,  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C.  The  bulletins  which  are  now  available  include  the 
following: 

Farmers'  Bulletin  113,  The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  118,  Grape  Growing  in  the  South. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  154,  The  Home  Fruit  Garden,  Preparation  and 
Care. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  156,  The  Home  Vineyard,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Northern  Conditions. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  157,  The   Propagation  of  Plants. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  176,  Cranberry  Culture. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  181,  Pruning. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  198,  Strawberries. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  213,  Raspberries. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  238,  Citrus  Fruit  Growing  in  the  Gulf  States. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  245,  Fungicides  and  Their  Use  in  Preventing 
Diseases  of  Fruits. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  284,  Insect  and  Fungous  Enemies  of  the  Grape 
East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  291,  Evaporation  of  Apples. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  293,  Use  of   Fruit  as  Food. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  332,  Nuts  and  Their  lisas  as  Food. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  401,  The  Protection  of  Orchards  in  the  Pacific 
Northwest  from  Spring  Frosts  by  Means  of  Fires  and  Smudges. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  404,  Irrigation  of  Orchards. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  426,  Canning  Peaches  on  the  Farm. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  440,  Spraying  Peaches  for  the  Control  of  Brown 
Rot,  Scab  and  Curculio. 

The  various  state  experiment  stations  have  issued  a  large  num- 
ber of  publications  on  fruit  growing.  Those  published  in  your  own 
state  can  be  obtained  from  the  Director  of  the  Experiment  Station 
free  of  charge.  These  bulletins  are  also  usually  sent  free  to  applicants 
outside  the  state  as  long  as  the  supply  lasts. 


INDEX 


Accessibility  to  market,  13 

Adventitious  buds,  20 

Age  of  trees  for  planting,  35 

Agitation   in   sprayers,    124 

Alabama,   Varieties   for,    312 

Alcoholic  waxes,   311 

Almond,  300 

Altitude  and  frosts,   182 

Analysis  of  fruit,   48 

Anthracnose,    115,    120 

Aphis,   83,   93,   100 

Apparatus,   Spraying,   123 

Apple,  178;  blight,  106:  classifica- 
tion, 178:  curculio,  81;  descrip- 
tion of  varieties,  179;  diseases, 
106:  forming  the  tree.  56,  188: 
grading,  146;  grafting,  173: 
insects  79:  mulching,  189: 
origin  of,  178:  packing,  140,  144: 
picking,  132:  planting.  18'.: 
propagation,  180;  scab,  108:  soil 
for,  182;  species  of,  178:  spray 
calendar.  303:  stocks,  181:  tree 
borer.  84:  varieties,  190. 

Apricot.   217 

Arsenate  of  lead,  309 

Arsenite  of  soda,  309 

Assimilation.  26 

Associations,  137 


Bagging  grapes,  244 

Bark,   19 

Bark  louse.  86 

Barrels,  143 

Barrel   press,   145 

Baskets.   139 

Beeswax,  311 

Beneficial    insects,     78 

Birds,  Injuries  from,   64 

Bitter   rot,   106 

Blackberry.     274;      diseases,     119; 

insects,    100;     propagation,    274; 

spray  calendar,    306 
Black  knot,  112 
Black  rot,  107,   111,   116 
Blight,   106,    110 


Books   on    horticulture,    322 

Bordeaux  mixture,   105,   307 

Borer.  84;  currant,  99;  flat-head- 
ed, 84;  peach,  90;  peach  twig, 
89;  raspberry,  100 

Brown  rot,  113 

Buds,   20 

Buds,   Winter   injury   to,   66 

Budding,  157;  forms  of,  163; 
June,  163;  time  for,  158 

Budstick.   158 

Buffalo  berry,  280;  propagation, 
281 

Buffalo   tree   hopper,    85 

Bulletins   on   fruit   growing,    323 

Bushel  basket.   139 

Bushel  box,   139 

Business  aspect,  16 

Butternut,    300 

Buying  trees,   35,   184 


California,    Varieties    for.    311 

Callousing,    154 

Cane  rust,   120 

Caterpillar.  Tent,  81 

Cedar  apples,  107 

Cellars,   150 

Chart  of  frost,   71 

Chemical  elements   in   fruit,   48 

Cherry,  204;  classification.  204; 
cultivation,  205;  diseases,  115; 
grafting,  174;  insects,  95;  mar- 
keting. 208;  planting,  205; 
propagation,  207:  soil  for,  205; 
spray  calendar,  304;  varieties, 
209 

Chestnut.   296 

Chinese  sand  pear,   191 

Chinquapin,  297 

Choice  of  locations,   18 

Cion.   156,   164.   168 

Classification    of    fruits.    28 

Clay  soils,   15 

Cleft   grafting,   166 

Clogging  of  spray  nozzles,    127 

Codlin   moth,  79 

Cold  storage,  147 

Collar.    19 

Colorado,    Varieties    for,    313 

Commission   dealers,    135 


INDEX 


325 


Cooling  rooms,    147 

Copper  carbonate  and  soap,   308 

Copper    sulfate    solution.    308 

Cordon   pruning,    59 

Corn  in  orchards,   45 

Cover  crops,  43,   45 

Cranberry,     283;       drainage,     286; 

location    of    beds,    284;     picking. 

289;    planting,   288;    soil  for,   285 
Cricket.    Snowy   tree,   101 
Cropping    the    orchard,    45 
Crossing,    24 
Crown,    19 

Crown    gall.    113,    114,    119 
Cultivation,    40,    188 
Curculio,   81,  91 
Currant,  258;    borer,  99;    cuttings, 

260;     diseases.  120;    insects,   97; 

origin.     259;      propagation,    259; 

spray   calendar,    305;    worm,    97 
Cuttings,   153,  154 
Cut  worm.    84 


Dewberry,    274 
Diagonal   pack,   140 
Digging   the  holes.    38 
Direction  of  the  slope,   16 
Diseases  of  fruits.  105 
Distances  for  planting,   321 
Downy   mildew,   116 
Dust  spraying,  123 


Eau  celeste.  307 
Effect  of  pruning,  53 
English  walnut,  299 
Espalier  pruning,    5S 


Fall   web   worm,    83 

Fillers,  46 

Fire   blight,   106 

Flat-headed   apple   borer,    84 

Flower.  21 

Foot  rot,    114 

Forming  the  apple  tree,  56 

Forming  the  head,  54 

Frost,  68;  foretelling,  69;  killing. 
68;  protection,  68,  71 

Fruit,  23;  analysis,  48;  classifi- 
cation, 28;  diseases,  105;  grades. 
145;  laws,  137;  lists,  311;  pack- 
ages, 135;  plants  from  seed,  25; 
propagation,  25,  151;  scald,  109; 
rules  for  naming,  320 

Fungicides,   105,   307 


Girdling,   21,   245 

Gooseberry,  263;  diseases,  120: 
insects,  97;  spray  calendar,  305 

Gouger,  Plum,  92 

Grading  fruit.   141,    145 

Graftage,   156 

Grafting,  164;  cleft,  166;  root. 
168;  side,  171;  tools,  165;  wax 
formula,  166,  311;  whip,  168 

Grain   in    orchards,    45 

Grape,  220;  bagging,  244;  culti- 
vation, 228;  cuttings,  223;  dis- 
eases, 115;  flowers,  222;  gird- 
ling, 245;  grafting,  175;  hybrids. 
221;  insects,  95;  Kniffen  method 
of  training,  237;  layers,  225; 
location  for.  227j  Munson  meth- 
od of  training,  239;  origin,  220; 
phylloxera,  96;  planting,  228; 
propagation,  222;  pruning,  229; 
soil  for.  227;  species  of,  220; 
spray  calendar,  305;  thinning, 
,243;  training,  229;  trellis,  230; 
vine  leaf  hopper,  95 

Growing  trees  in   sod,    41 

Grub,   White,   102 


H  '..; 

Hardwood   cuttings,   154 
Harvesting,  132 
Hazel,   301 
Heeling  in,    186 
Hellebore,   310 
Hexagonal  system,   38 
Hogs  in   orchards,   80 
Holes  for  trees,  38,  185 
Hopper,   Leaf,   95 
Horticultural    publications,    322 
Hose  for  spraying,  128 
Humus,   41 
Hybrids,   24 


Inarching,  175 

Injuries,  64;  frost,  68;  spraying, 
110 

Insecticides,  309 

Insects,  75;  beneficial,  78;  chew- 
ing, 76;  parasitic,  78;  preda- 
ceous,  79;  sucking,  77;  on  the 
roots.  78  :.„.,=. i. i ' 

Inspection  laws,  76 

Iowa,  Varieties  for,  313 

Irrigation.   51 


326 


INDEX 


Juneberry,    275;     cultivation,    276; 
propagation,    276;     varieties,    276 
June  budding,   163 


Kerosene  emulsion,    310 
Kniffen    system    for  grapes, 


Ladders  for  picking.   133 

Layers,  153 

Laying  out  the  orchard,  37 

Leaf  blight,   110 

Leaf  curl.   Ill,   114,   119 

Leaf  hopper,  95 

Leaf  lice,  83 

Leaf   roller,    101 

Leaf  rust,  107,  118 

Leaf  slug,  88 

Leaf  spot,  118,  119,  121 

Leaves,   21 

Lice,    83.    100 

Lime,    310 

Limestone  soil,   14 

Lime-sulfur    wash.     308 

Liquid  spraying,  123 

Loam.   14.   15 

Location  for  fruit  growing,  13,  18 

Loess  loam,   14 

Louse,   Woolly  apple,   87 

Low-headed  trees,  54 


M 

Manures,    47,    50;     application.    49 
Marketing,   132 
Methods   of  packing,    140 
Mice.  65 

Michigan.  Varieties  for,  314 
Mildew.   109.   116,  120 
Mineral   substances.   28 
Minnesota,  Varieties  for,  314 
Missouri,    Varieties   for,    315 
Moisture   loss,    26 
Mountain  ash  as  stock,  194 
Mulberry.  281;    groups,  281;    prop- 
agation 283;    varieties,   283 
Mulching,  42 


N 

Naming  fruits.  Rules  for,   320 
Nectarines,    217 

New    England,    Varieties    for,    316 
New   Jersey.    Varieties   for,    316 


New   York.   Varieties   for,    315 
North  Carolina,  Varieties  for,   317 
Nozzles,   Spray,  127 
Number  of  plants  to  the  acre,  321 
Nursery   inspection,    76 
Nursery  selection,   35 
Nursery  stock.   35 
Nuts,   294 


Offsets,   152 

Ohio.   Varieties  for,   317 

Open-headed  trees,  54 

Orange  rust,   120 

Orchard   cultivation,    40 

Orchard   protection,    61 

Oregon,  Varieties  for,   318 

Outlook   for  fruit  growing,    17 

Overproduction,   17 

Oyster  shell  bark  louse,   86 


Packages,    136,    139,    143 

Packing,   135,   140 

Painting  wounds,   55 

Papers,   Horticultural,   322 

Parasites,    78 

Paris   green,    309 

Parts  of   the   flower,   22 

Peach,  209;  borer,  89,  90;  classi- 
fication, 212;  diseases,  113; 
distribution,  209;  grafting,  175; 
insects.  89;  leaf  curl,  111;  loca- 
tion and  soil,  216;  origin,  211; 
planting,  214;  propagation,  213; 
protection,  210;  pruning,  215; 
rosette,  115;  spray  calendar, 
304;  thinning,  216;  varieties, 
216;  yellows,  115 

Pear.  191;  Chinese  sand.  191; 
diseases,  110;  dwarf,  192;  in- 
sects. 88;  psylla,  89;  spray  cal- 
endar. 305;  standard.  192;  tree 
slug,  88 

Pecan,    294 

Peddling,   135 

Periodicals,   322 

Persimmon,  289 

Phylloxera,   96 

Picking    fruit.    132 

Plant  food.   46,   48 

Plant   growth.    19 

Planting,  34,   37 

Plum,  198;  classification,  200; 
cultivation,  203;  curculio,  81, 
91;  diseases,  111;  gouger,  92; 
grafting.  173;  insects,  91;  leaf 
aphis,  93;  marketing,  204;  mix- 
ing varieties  of,  202;  planting. 


INDEX 


327 


Plum — Cont'd. 

201;  picking,  203;  pocket,  111; 
propagation,  200;  pruning,  203; 
soil,  201;  species,  198;  spray 
calendar,  304;  stocks,  201; 
thinning  203;  varieties,  204 

Pollen,   24 

Pollination.   24.   32 

Pome   fruits,   178 

Potassium  sulfide,   308 

Powdery  mildew,    109,   117 

Preparing  the  land,  33 

Pressure  in   spraying,   124 

Press,  Barrel,  145 

Principles  of  plant  growth,  19 

Propagation,   151 

Protection,   Orchard,  61,  68 

Pruning,  39,  53;  effect  of,  53;  how 
to  make  cuts  in,  55,  58;  method 
of,  55;  reasons  for,  53;  the 
young  tree,  54;  tools,  56 

Publications,   322 

Psychrometer,  70 

Psylla,  Pear,  89 

Pumps,   Spray,    126 

Pyrethrum,    310 


Quince,  195;  as  stock,  192;  dis- 
eases, 110;  insects,  196;  prop- 
agation, 195 

Quincunx    system,    38 


Rabbits.  65 

Raffia,   160 

Raspberry.  265;  classification. 
265;  diseases,  119;  flat-headed 
borer.  100;  insects,  100;  market- 
ing, 273;  mulching,  271;  pick- 
ing, 273;  propagation,  266;  pro- 
tection, 271:  pruning,  270;  rust. 
120;  soil,  268;  spray  calendar. 
306;  support,  271;  thinning,  270 

Rate  of  seeding  cover  crops,  44 

Reasons  for  cultivation,  40 

Reasons    for    pruning,    53 

Red  orange  rust,  120 

Renewing  old  trees,  50 

Resin    lime    mixture,    310 

Rest   period    of   plants,    28 

Return  package,   142 

Root   cuttings,    153 

Root  galls,    65,   107 

Root  grafting,  168 

Root  killing,   67 

Rose  chafer,  97 


Rot,    Bitter,    106 

Rot,  Black,  107,  111,  116 

Rot,  Brown,  113 

Rules  for  naming  fruits,  320 

Runners,   19,  152 

Rust,  107,  118,  120 


Sand  cherry,  277;  distribution, 
277;  propagation,  279 

Sandy  soils,  15 

San  Jose  scale,   86 

Saskatchewan,    Varieties   for,   319 

Scab,   108,   113,   115 

Scald,    Fruit,    109 

Scale   insects,    86 

Scurfy  bark  louse,   86 

Seed,   25,   151 

Seedlings,    25,   184 

Selection   of   trees,    35 

Selection    of    varieties,    31 

Shape  of   trees,    35 

Shot   hole   fungus,   113 

Side   grafting,   171 

Slope,   Direction  of  the,  16 

Small    fruits,    247 

Smudger,   73 

Snowy   tree    cricket,    101 

Soap,    Whale   oil,    310 

Sod  culture,    41 

Soils,    14 

Solar   pit,   155 

Sorting   table.    143 

Sprayers,   124,   129 

Spraying,  123;  calendar,  303; 
injuries,  110;  outfits,  129 

Square  system,   37 

Stems,   19,   139 

Stock,   156,    181,    201 

Storage    buildings,    146 

Storing,  132.  146 

Stratification,    151 

Strawberry,  247;  diseases,  118; 
hill  system,  251;  insects,  101; 
marketing,  257;  origin  of,  247; 
picking,  257;  propagation,  ,248; 
renewing  beds,  254;  row  sys- 
tem, 251;  rust,  118;  setting 
plants,  252;  sexuality  of  plants, 
255;  soil,  248;  spraying  cal- 
endar 305;  time  of  planting, 
249;  varieties,  258;  weevil,  102; 
winter  protection,  253 

Stone  fruits,   198 

Success  in  fruit  growing,  17 

Suckers,    19,    189 

Sunburn,    118 

Sunscald,    61 

Systems   of   planting,    87 


r 


328 


INDEX 


Tent   caterpillar,    81 

Thermometer,    70 

Thinning  fruits,   203,   216 

Thorns,    19 

Thoroughness   of   spraying,    l: 

Time    to   apply   manures,    50 

Time  to  pick  fruit,  133 

Time   to   plant,   34 

Time   to  prune,   54 

Tobacco   dust,    310 

Tobacco    soap,    311 

Tools  for  pruning,  56 

Topography,  16 

Top-working,   173 

Transpiration,    26 

Tree  currants,   262 

Tree   hopper,    Buffalo.    80 

Trellis    for    grapes,    230 

Twig   borer,    85,    89 


Varieties,    29,    31 

Varieties    for    various    states, 


W 

Walnut,   299,  300 

Washington,  Varieties  for,  318 

Waxed    string    bandage,    311 

Waxes,  Grafting,  311 

Web   worm,   83 

Weevil,    Strawberry,    102 

Wet  and  dry  bulb,   70 

Whale  oil  soap,   310 

When  to  prune,  54 

Whip  grafting,   168 

White  grub,  102 

Windbreaks,    182 

Wind  injury,  64 

Winter  injury  to  roots,  67 

Winter  killing,   65 

Woolly    aphis.    87 

Woolly  apple  louse,   87 


Yellow,  Peach,  113 


AGRICULTURAL  TEXT  BOOKS 

FOR 

HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Published  by 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  CO..   ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

FIELD   CROPS 

By  A.  D.  WILSON,  Sup't  of  Farmers'  Institutes  and  Extension, 

Minnesota  College  of  Agriculture,  and  C.  W.  WAR- 

BURTON,  Agronomist,  U.  S.  D.  A. 

544  pages,  162  illustrations,  cloth,  $1  50  net. 

This  book  discusses  the  peculiarities  of  each  of  the  various  classes 
and  varieties  of  farm  crops,  the  handling  of  the  soil,  selections  of  seed, 
and  general  crop  management.  It  covers  the  cereals,  including  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  etc.;  forage  crops,  including  hay  grasses,  clo- 
ver, alfalfa,  cowpeas  and  other  legumes;  how  to  make  good  meadows 
and  pastures,  and  the  art  of  hay  making,  etc.;  root  crops;  sugar  crops; 
fiber  crops,  including  cotton,  flax,  hemp;  tobacco,  potatoes,  in  fact 
every  farm  crop  of  any  importance  is  discussed.  The  introductory 
chapters  give  the  general  classification  of  farm  crops  and  their  uses  and 
relative  importance,  and  review  the  subject  of  how  plants  grow.  The 
concluding  chapters  discuss  the  theory  and  practice  of  crop  rotation  and 
weeds  and  their  eradication.  A  list  of  supplementary  references  is  giv- 
en at  the  close  of  each  chapter.  The  style  is  easy,  subject  matter  well 
arranged  and  vital,  and  the  book  is  of  excellent  mechanical  makeup 
throughout. 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

By  J.  B.  DAVIDSON,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering, 
Iowa  State  College 

554  pages,  342  illustrations,  cloth,  $1.50  net. 

A  volume  intended  primarily  as  a  text  for  secondary  schools  of  agri- 
culture, and  for  colleges  where  only  a  general  course  can  be  offered. 
The  subjects  discussed  are  so  applicable  to  the  every-day  work  of  the 
farm  that  the  book  will  also  prove  of  great  interest  and  value  to  those 
engaged  in  practical  agriculture.  The  following  subjects  are  given  space 
according  to  their  importance:  Agricultural  Surveying,  Drainage,  Irri- 
gation, Road  Construction,  Farm  Machinery,  Farm  Motors,  Farm 
Structures,  Farm  Sanitation,  and  Rope  Work.  Each  chapter  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  set  of  questions  for  review  and  for  thought  promotion. 
Lists  of  references  to  best  books  and  bulletins  are  included.  Complete 
index.  A  splendid  text  in  every  detail. 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

By  CHARLES  S.  PLUMB,  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  College 
of  Agriculture,  Ohio  State  University. 

395  pages,  217  illustrations,  cloth,  $1.25  net. 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry  is  the  only  book  published  that 
is  specially  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  students  in  Animal  Husbandry 
courses  in  secondary  schools.  Among  the  subjects  discussed  are:  The 
Importance  of  Animal  Husbandry ;  Breeds  of  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep 
and  Swine;  Animal  Type  and  Its  Importance;  Reasons  and  Methods 
in  Judging  Live  Stock;  Points  of  the  Horse;  Judging  Horses,  Cattle, 
Sheep  and  Swine,  etc.;  Heredity:  Its  Meaning  and  Influence;  Selection 
and  Its  Importance;  Pedigrees  and  Their  Values;  Suggestions  to  Young 
Breeders;  Composition  of  Plants  and  Animate;  Influence  of  Foods  on 
the  Body;  Feeding  Standards,  Origin  and  Use;  How  to  Calculate  a 
Ration;  Coarse  Feeds  and  Their  Values;  Concentrated  Feeds  and  Their 
Value;  Care  of  Farm  Animals;  Poultry:  Types  and  Breeds,  Judging, 
Feeding;  Eggs  and  Incubation;  Poultry  Houses.  Topics  for  discus- 
sion and  suggestions  for  observation  and  application  are  included  at 
the  close  of  each  chapter. 

SOILS  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 

By  A.  R.  WHITSON,  Professor  of  Soils  and  Drainage,  and  H.  L. 

WALSTER,  Instructor  in  Soils,  of  the  University  of 

Wisconsin. 

315  pages,  well  illustrated,   cloth,  $1.25  net. 

Xo  other  book  on  Soils  presents  the  relation  of  the  soil  to  the 
production  of  crops  in  so  clear  and  agreeable  a  manner  as  this.  There 
are  chapters  on  the  following:  Conditions  Essential  to  Plant  Growth, 
Origin  and  Classification* of  Soils;  Primary  Relations  of  Soil  and  Plant; 
Nitrogen;  Phosphorus  and  Potash;  Soil  Analysis;  Farm  Manure;  Com- 
mercial Fertilizers;  Physical  Properties  of  Soils;  Water  Supply;  Tem- 
perature and  Ventilation  of  Soils;  Drainage;  Erosion;  Tillage;  Humus; 
Relation  of  Crops  to  Climate  and  Soil;  Soils  of  the  United  States; 
Management  of  Important  Types  of  Soil;  Dry  Farming.  Explicit 
language  and  the  avoidance  of  technical  matter  make  the  book  ideal  for 
beginners  in  this  subject.  A  well-chosen  set  of  fundamental  labora- 
tory exercises  and  demonstrations,  with  complete  directions,  is  included. 

POPULAR  FRUIT  GROWING 

By  SAMUEL  B.  GREEX,  late  Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry, 
University  of  Minnesota. 

300  pages,  120  illustrations,  cloth,  $1.00 

This  book  covers  the  factors  of  successful  Fruit  Growing,  with 
lists  of  fruits  adapted  to  each  state;  Orchard  Protection;  Injurious 
Insects  and  Diseases;  Spraying;  Harvesting  and  Marketing  Methods; 
Propagation  of  Fruits;  etc.  A  very  popular  book  for  schools  and  col- 
leges. A  new,  revised  edition  by  Le  Roy  Cady,  Professor  of  Horticul- 
ture, University  of  Minnesota,  is  just  out. 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

By  SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  late  Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry, 
University  of  Minnesota. 

252  pages,  profusely  illustrated,  cloth,  $1.00, 


A  manual  on  the  growing  of  vegetables  for  home  use  and  for  the 
market.  The  immense  sale  of  this  book  to  farmers  and  gardeners,  and 
its  wide  adoption  for  class-room  work  in  agricultural  schools  and  col- 
leges, prove  it  to  be  the  standard  work  published  on  this  subject.  This 
is  the  12th  revised  edition.  We  have  a  paper  covered  edition  of  this 
book  which  sells  for  50c. 


DAIRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

By  G.  L.  MARTIN,  Professor  of  Dairying,  North  Dakota  Agricultural 
College. 

140  pages,  illustrated,  cloth,  50c. 

This  laboratory  manual  offers  a  carefully  organized  series  of  exer- 
cises covering  the  principles  of  modern  dairy  practice,  with  sugges- 
t  ions  for  their  practical  application.  It  covers  the  Production  and  Care, 
Testing,  Manufacture,  and  Marketing,  of  Dairy  Products.  An  indis- 
pensable guide  for  classes  in  Dairying  and  for  Creamerymen. 


SILOS:  CONSTRUCTION  AND  SERVICE 

By  M.  L.  KING,  formerly  Silo  Expert,  Iowa  State  College,  and  Orig- 
inator of  the  Iowa  Silo. 


100  pages,  well  illustrated,  cloth,  50c. 


There  is  no  recent  American  book  on  silo  building,  and  none  of 
any  date  that  covers  the  many  types  of  silos  now  in  use  and  gives 
details  of  their  construction.  Mr.  King  here  presents  to  the  intended 
builder  the  principles  of  silo  construction,  and  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  each  type;  but  more  particularly  he  gives  the  actual 
method  of  construction,  with  the  main  points  of  silo  management. 


RULES  OF  ORDER  FOR  EVERY  DAY  USE 

AND  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT   MADE  PLAIN 

By  HENRY  SLADE  GOFF,  Author  of  the  Goff's.  Historical  Maps. 

113  pages,  illustrated,  cloth,  50c., 


There  has  long  been  a  demand  for  an  accurate  Rules  of  Order  text 
that  was  brief  yet  sufficiently  complete  for  all  practical  needs.  This 
is  such  a  book.  The  matter  is  so  clear,  so  well  arranged,  and  so  suc- 
cinct that  those  interested  in  social  centers,  clubs,  societies,  etc.,  will 
be  delighted  with  it.  The  book  also  presents  the  main  points  of  civil 
government  that  everyone  ought  to  know. 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


VAY  28  1328 
NOV     61933 


01*251957 

JUN  1 2  1958 


Form  L-9-15wi-ll,'27 


G82    Green  - 


Popu3  s.r  fruit 


UKWERS1TV  »f  CALIFORNIA 

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